Chapter 3: Theoretical Explanations of Deviance- Sociological and Criminological

Learning Objectives

• Describe major sociological theories of deviance
• Explain the role of social structure and inequality
• Compare structural and interactionist perspectives
• Understand classical and positivist criminology

Key Terms

• Anomie
• Social Ecology
• Social Disorganization
• Strain Theory
• Modes of Adaptation
• Subculture
• Social Control Theory
• Social Bonds
• Conflict Theory
• Feminist Theory
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Labeling Theory
• Classical Theory
• Positivist Theory
• Routine Activities Theory

Summary

This chapter shifts focus to societal influences on crime. It explores theories such as strain, social control, conflict, and labeling. Criminological perspectives build on these frameworks, emphasizing both structural conditions and individual choice. The chapter highlights how social context shapes patterns of deviance.

Learn More: Attacking the Capital

Figure: On January 6, 2021, a crowd of Trump supporters rioted and attacked the U.S. Capitol, many of whom later received various criminal charges. What are some things that were happening in society at the time that might have contributed to these particular people choosing to storm the capitol?

On January 6, 2021, the world watched as American citizens stormed the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. (figure 5.2). Tensions had been high for months. The country was still in the grips of COVID-19 and had just experienced a summer filled with protests against police brutality of the Black community. Following the nationwide presidential election in November of 2020, Trump supporters began talking about a coup.

On January 6th, a joint session of Congress was in the Capitol formalizing the election of Joe Biden by officially counting and recording the electoral college votes from each state. This is a process that is led by the vice president and has occurred in every presidential election in U.S. history. Interestingly, when Donald Trump was elected president, Joe Biden was serving as vice president and led the same ritual to formalize that election. In 2021, the vice president was Mike Pence, and he refused to participate in Trump’s claims that the election had been stolen, and Biden’s victory should be rejected.

While Congress was conducting its responsibility in the Capitol, Donald Trump spoke at a rally from which thousands marched down the street to the Capitol building. At least 2,000 of these individuals breached the security measures and entered the building. Many participated in vandalizing and looting in the Senate chamber and several offices, assaulting Capitol police officers and reporters, and searching for members of Congress while making threats of harm (including the murder of Vice President Mike Pence).

During this insurrection, five people were killed and 138 police officers were injured. Later, four more officers who survived that day died by suicide. In the time since, over 1,000 of the participants have been charged with federal crimes for the attack. As of July 2023, 629 of those had pleaded guilty and 127 had been found guilty at trial. Many of those convicted for their actions on January 6th were charged with sedition, a slightly lower charge than treason.

A theory is an explanation of an observed occurrence in an environment. A theory asks the fundamental questions: Who, What, When, Where, How, and Why and tries to answer them. These theories should do their best to explain the world according to the facts that are present to them at the time (Paternoster & Bachman, 2001). Theories can also be used to predict outcomes by formulating ideas for experimentation and research to either prove or disprove them.

In the world of Criminology, these theories are used to explain the causes of criminal behavior, both on an individual level (micro) and a group level (macro). They attempt to explain why people commit crimes and identify risk factors for committing a crime and can focus on how certain laws are created and enforced. Micro-level explanations focus on causation instances from a personal perspective:

“He/She/They committed the crime of robbery because of a lack of parental control at home.”

Macro-level explanations focus on causation instances from a group perspective:

“The crime rate in New Orleans is increasing because city leaders are ineffective in providing adequate leadership initiatives to fight the growing problems plaguing the city.”

Sociologist and Criminologist aim to study crime and deviance from a micro and macro level perspective. A sociologist is a social scientist who studies human society, social behavior, and social structures by analyzing groups, cultures, institutions, and interactions to understand how people relate to each other and are shaped by their environment, using scientific methods to explain social phenomena like inequality, social change, and cultural shifts. They work in diverse fields, from academia and research to government, healthcare, and marketing, to inform policy, solve social problems, and understand complex societal dynamics.

While a criminologist is a social scientist who studies crime, criminals, and criminal behavior to understand its causes, patterns, and effects, with the aim of developing strategies for prevention and intervention within the justice system. Criminologists must possess expertise across a range of disciplines, including Psychology, Sociology, Economics, Political Science, Biological Science, Religion, Urban Studies, Social Work, and Law. This breadth of knowledge is necessary because understanding criminal behavior requires examining the full complexity of human experience—including both individual-level psychological and moral dimensions and the macro-level structural forces that shape social interaction. When a criminologist investigates a specific trend in crime, they are not just looking for one specific answer as to how or why, but for as many explanatory factors as possible. Criminologists must understand the full context behind deviant behavior before recommending policy changes or the creation of laws that may affect a diverse population. The following section examines theories of crime causation from sociological and criminological perspectives.