3.1: Sociological Perspectives

Sociological theories of crime help us understand why some drug use is stigmatized while other use is not, why crime is over- and under-represented across social groups, and what alternatives may exist to the individualistic punishment models that have dominated the criminal justice system since the 19th century.

Auguste Comte, a French engineer turned philosopher, is often credited for coining the term sociology and founding the positivist movement. Rather than studying individuals and individual influences on behavior, Comte and other early sociologists were interested in a broader understanding of our society and culture. They wanted to study the ways that societies formed and functioned, how social structures influenced behavior (especially at a group level), and how cultures came to attribute meaning to behavior.

In sociology, social structure refers to the framework and relationship between institutions, groups, and norms in a society. This includes social class, politics, economy, religion, behaviors, values, and more. So essentially, social structure is all the things that make up a society. It is a key concept in the field of sociology. See the following Learn More section for a current example of social structural concerns. Social structural theories of crime emphasize differences between groups in society, such as class, education, gender, race, or ethnicity. Distinctions between groups can be created by both formal (e.g., laws) and informal means (e.g., peer interactions).

We must again consider the social position of these theorists as they examine social structures. Early sociology, like criminology, prioritized the work of White men almost exclusively. This means that the lens through which societies and cultures were initially assessed typically came from a privileged position at best. Social norms and expectations such as traditional gender roles were embedded in many early attempts at explaining society and culture. We know that social norms change as societies change and progress, so definitions of deviance have certainly changed since many of these theories were introduced. We need to always consider what people are deviating from and according to whom. This is not to say these theories are wholly wrong or without value. Rather, it is a reminder to keep the theorists’ personal perspectives or biases (and your own) in mind.

Theory Snapshot: Summary of Sociological Explanations of Deviance and Crime

Major theory	Related explanation	Summary of explanation	Major theory	Related explanation
Functionalist	Durkheim’s views	Deviance has several functions: (a) it clarifies norms and increases conformity, (b) it strengthens social bonds among the people reacting to the deviant, and (c) it can help lead to positive social change.	Functionalist	Durkheim’s views
	Social ecology	Certain social and physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods contribute to high crime rates. These characteristics include poverty, dilapidation, population density, and population turnover.	Functionalist	Social ecology
	Strain theory	According to Robert Merton, deviance among the poor results from a gap between the cultural emphasis on economic success and the inability to achieve such success through the legitimate means of working. According to Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, differential access to illegitimate means affects the type of deviance in which individuals experiencing strain engage.	Functionalist	Strain theory
	Deviant subcultures	Poverty and other community conditions give rise to certain subcultures through which adolescents acquire values that promote deviant behavior. Albert Cohen wrote that lack of success in school leads lower-class boys to join gangs whose value system promotes and rewards delinquency. Walter Miller wrote that delinquency stems from focal concerns, a taste for trouble, toughness, cleverness, and excitement. Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti argued that a subculture of violence in inner-city areas promotes a violent response to insults and other problems.	Functionalist	Deviant subcultures
	Social control theory	Travis Hirschi wrote that delinquency results from weak bonds to conventional social institutions such as families and schools. These bonds include attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.	Functionalist	Social control theory
Conflict	Conflict Theory	People with power pass laws and otherwise use the legal system to secure their position at the top of society and to keep the powerless on the bottom. The poor and minorities are more likely because of their poverty and race to be arrested, convicted, and imprisoned.	Conflict	Conflict Theory
	Feminist perspectives	Inequality against women and antiquated views about relations between the sexes underlie rape, sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and other crimes against women. Sexual abuse prompts many girls and women to turn to drugs and alcohol use and other antisocial behavior. Gender socialization is a key reason for large gender differences in crime rates.	Conflict	Feminist perspectives
Symbolic interactionism	Differential association theory	Edwin H. Sutherland argued that criminal behavior is learned by interacting with close friends and family members who teach us how to commit various crimes and also about the values, motives, and rationalizations we need to adopt in order to justify breaking the law.	Symbolic interactionism	Differential association theory
	Labeling theory	Deviance results from being labeled a deviant; nonlegal factors such as appearance, race, and social class affect how often labeling occurs.	Symbolic interactionism	Labeling theory