4.2.3: The Professional Era

The shortcomings in policing during the political era led to external civilian pressure for reform, giving rise to the reform or professional era of American policing in the early 1900s, persisting through the early 1960s. By the late 1920s, the close entanglement of policing with local politicians and business leaders, determined to utilize police for personal political gain and illicit profit, compromised effective strategies, fostering corruption within individual officers and entire departments (Reiss, 1992). This widespread issue, coupled with unprofessional conduct, became untenable, prompting internal and external calls for police reform by the late 1930s.

After the turn of the century, social pressures perpetuating professional police reform efforts instigated additional discussion concerning the precise roles, functions, and responsibility of law enforcement, as well as general departmental structure and operations.

The idea that the police should do more than just arrest criminals, that they should seek to prevent crime and rehabilitate offenders had been suggested years before. But it was not until after the turn of the century, when it enjoyed the support of similar reforms in other areas of American life, that it gained acceptance within police circles. (Walker, 1977, pp. 53-54)

Due to varying interpretations and emphasis on different aspects of professionalization, a broad swath of new reform policies were introduced that, in some instances, substantially differed across departments.

Early Reform (1920-1930)

During the 1920s and 1930s, many police departments narrowed their functions to focus on criminal investigation, suspect apprehension, and crime control (Kelling & Moore, 1988). Professionalization manifested differently in this approach, allowing certain officers to specialize in specific areas of policing rather than only work patrol, concurrently reducing opportunities for corruption by local politicians and community members.

Technological advancements in the early 20th century, such as the automobile, two-way radio, and telephone, made this approach feasible. The adoption of automobiles enabled officers to substantially increase area coverage and respond to emergencies more quickly. Innovations like the two-way radio and telephone significantly increased communication. For the first time, commanding officers could maintain continuous contact with patrolling officers through the two-way radio, and the telephone provided citizens with an opportunity to immediately connect with the police.

Leaders such as police chiefs August Vollmer, O.W. Wilson, and Richard Sylvester emerged as important advocates for a more professional police force through endorsements of higher education, modern technology, and elevated standards of professionalism (Uchida, 2005; Walker, 1977). However, the first challenge was addressing corruption and political influence in police departments. Departments implemented civil service systems that emphasized crime prevention and scientifically based investigation techniques, simultaneously curbing political interference in hiring practices. Many states eliminated patronage hiring practices of police chiefs, adopting civil service examinations, or allowing police commissions to appoint chiefs to lifetime tenure (Kelling & Moore, 1988). Changing the hiring practices of police chiefs was not the only adjustment made to avoid corruption. For instance, in Philadelphia, it became illegal for an officer to reside in the same neighborhood where they worked, and officers were limited to patrolling the same beat. Additionally, during this time, training academies were established to enhance officer expertise.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): In the early 20th century, police technological innovation saw significant advancements, particularly in communication and transportation. The introduction of police radios revolutionized communication between officers, allowing for quicker response times and improved coordination. Additionally, the adoption of motorized vehicles, such as cars and motorcycles, enhanced mobility, and enabled law enforcement to cover larger areas more efficiently. These innovations transformed policing practices, leading to more effective crime prevention and enforcement strategies, ultimately improving public safety and the efficiency of law enforcement agencies.

Photograph taken on April 20th, 1936.

Photo Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, photograph by Harris & Ewing, Public Domain

August Vollmer, often revered as the “Father of Modern American Policing,” played a pivotal role in the professional policing era in America during the early 20th century (Oliver, 2017). Born in 1876, Vollmer’s law enforcement career began in the late 19th century after military service in the Philippines during the Spanish-American War (Wilson, 1953). Following a successful four-year term as Berkeley’s elected marshal in California, Vollmer was appointed as the first Police Chief of the Berkeley Police Department in 1916, setting a standard for police departments across the nation until his retirement in 1932 (Douthit, 1975).

Vollmer’s leadership in law enforcement was characterized by an unwavering commitment to improving training and professional standards for officers. His progressive reforms reflected the social movement towards professionalization of law enforcement, addressing public concerns about the inadequate police response to rising crime (Walker & Boehm, 1997). In the aftermath of an era marked by widespread police brutality and corruption, Vollmer implemented mandatory police training classes, advocated for hiring of college-educated officers, and was among the first to hire Black officers in 1919 and female officers in 1925, challenging discriminatory employment practices prevalent at the time (Kell, 2017).

Vollmer’s contributions to the professionalization of policing were vast. One key initiative was the establishment of the first policing school in the United States (Oliver, 2017). The Berkeley Police School, founded in 1906, evolved into the Berkeley Police Department. This institution, departing from the traditional apprenticeship approach, introduced a systematic and academic approach to law enforcement education. Officers received training in crime investigation, legal procedures, and community relations, establishing a framework for a more informed and skilled police force (Douthit, 1975).

Scientific methods in crime detection were a hallmark of Vollmer’s contributions. Recognizing the need for a systematic and efficient strategy to solve crimes, he integrated scientific principles into policing. A firm believer in the science of police work, he introduced technologies like lie detectors and crime lab forensic science. Vollmer emphasized forensic techniques, such as fingerprint analysis and ballistics, enhancing the accuracy of criminal investigations (Kell, 2017). This emphasis not only improved law enforcement effectiveness but also laid the foundation for modern forensic practices (Douthit, 1975).

Additionally, Vollmer played a crucial role in standardizing police practices. Importantly, he advocated for the development of uniform crime reporting methods and record-keeping systems that cultivated a consistent and reliable database for analyzing crime trends. This commitment to data-driven decision-making enabled police agencies to effectively allocate resources and address emerging challenges, which became a cornerstone of modern law enforcement strategies (Douthit, 1975).

The adoption of motorized patrols was another significant innovation introduced by Vollmer. In a time dominated by foot and horse patrols, Vollmer recognized the potential to revolutionize police mobility through the integration of newly emerging travel technologies. Equipping officers with bicycles in 1910, motorcycles in 1911 (National Motorcycle Museum, 2018), and patrol cars in 1914 all enhanced crime prevention and response, while symbolizing a crucial departure from the archaic image of the static, foot-patrolling officer (Oliver, 2017). In addition to these achievements, Vollmer is also credited as the first police chief to equip patrol cars with two-way radios in 1929 (Douthit, 1975), further improving police communication and response.

Vollmer’s vision for policing was truly groundbreaking. His innovative approach prioritized active officer engagement with the communities they served, fostering a newfound cooperation and trust between citizens and local law enforcement officials. He underscored the importance of a holistic policing strategy that considered underlying social conditions as contributing factors influencing crime (Oliver, 2017). Vollmer advocated for an understanding of these factors among police officials, which was paramount to the later development of a preventative approach to law enforcement.

The significance of Vollmer’s policing philosophy laid the groundwork for future efforts to bridge the gap between police and the public. This challenge for law enforcement reemerges over time, especially amid cultural changes and the expanding demands of a growing, pluralistic, democratic society (Douthit, 1975). Nevertheless, Vollmer’s ideas have proven to be pivotal in shaping the trajectory of law enforcement, emphasizing the need for a collaborative and proactive approach to policing that considers the broader social context.

Vollmer’s steadfast commitment to professionalism and innovation earned him widespread recognition, propelling his rapid ascent to prominence and exerting a profound, positive influence on policing practices at the national scale (Bopp, 1977). Orlando W. Wilson, a distinguished scholar of American policing, encapsulated August Vollmer’s career with the following words:

From the beginning Vollmer’s police career was marked, first, by a stubborn insistence that any task could be accomplished and any problem solved if he thought about it and worked at it long and hard enough, and second, by an ingenuity and resourcefulness that enabled him to develop unique methods to accomplish his purpose. His clear vision and critical mind enabled him to probe quickly to the core of any problem. His fresh approach and unswerving determination brought solutions that all too frequently were met by derision from his colleagues, the press, and the public. In consequence, hundreds of experienced police officials scorned, at first, the ideas developed by this young man from a small Western town. But the police profession today recognizes that Vollmer was right in his proposals; his procedures have been adopted by progressive police departments throughout this country as well as abroad. (1953, p. 97)

Chief Vollmer stands out as a prime example of police administration leadership that played a pivotal role in the crucial reformation of policing during the professional era (Oliver, 2017). Through his unwavering emphasis on education, application of scientific methods, standardization of police practices, implementation of an active, community-engaged policing approach, and the integration of technological innovation, Vollmer not only reshaped law enforcement but also set a new paradigm for the field.

His enduring legacy continues to wield a profound influence on modern policing, serving as a reminder of the paramount importance of adaptability, professionalism, and community collaboration among law enforcement in their relentless pursuit of public order and safety (Oliver, 2017).

Wickersham Commission

By the late 1920s, burgeoning public interest and controversy surrounding reform of criminal justice institutions had taken root nationwide. In response to these escalating concerns, President Herbert Hoover’s administration established the Wickersham Commission, officially known as the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, in 1929. This commission was tasked with conducting an extensive evaluation of American social institutions, later recognized as the criminal justice system. Named after its chairman, George W. Wickersham, a distinguished attorney and former U.S. Attorney General, the commission’s work was exhaustive and comprehensive, extending well beyond the three major branches of the criminal justice system (law enforcement, courts, and corrections), including criminology, crime statistics, and costs of crime (Walker & Boehm, 1997).

The commission’s multifaceted investigation included an examination of the legal landscape, focusing on the effectiveness of Prohibition, widespread citizen violations of Prohibition, and the strain on law enforcement stemming from the nationwide ban on alcoholic beverages. Beyond Prohibition, the commission delved into law enforcement practices, addressing issues such as corruption, brutality, and the use of excessive force within law enforcement agencies, harshly condemning many observed policing practices (Walker, 1977). It also scrutinized criminal procedures, aiming to ensure fairness and due process in law enforcement. Additionally, the Wickersham Commission explored the conditions and treatment of individuals in penal institutions, contributing to discussions about criminal punishment and rehabilitation (Walker & Boehm, 1997).

The comprehensive findings of the commission, primarily authored by August Vollmer, were documented in a series of reports issued between 1931 and 1932, collectively known as the Wickersham Commission Reports. However, due to the Stock Market Crash in 1929 and the subsequent economic downturn, the country’s focus shifted almost entirely towards economic recovery efforts by the time of the Wickersham Reports’ release. This shift in focus negatively influenced the effectiveness of the committee’s efforts, and as a result, the Wickersham Report “had little immediate impact on public policy” (Walker & Boehm, 1997, p. vii).

Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): President Herbert Hoover with the twelve members of the newly formed National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement, later known as the Wickersham Commission, gathered on the North Lawn near the East Wing of the White House, ca. 1929.
Photo Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, photograph by Harris & Ewin, Public Domain

One pivotal segment of the commission’s findings that yielded significant and immediate socio-political influence was the Report on Lawlessness in Law Enforcement (Walker, 1997). This comprehensive report meticulously detailed observations and evidence gathered from fifteen cities across the country, exposing prevalent illegal, improper, and unethical law enforcement practices. These practices encompassed the use of threats and intimidation tactics, physical torture, denial of legal counsel, illegal detention, and unreasonably protracted questioning of suspects in custody (Calder, 1993).

The reports provided a thorough analysis of the American criminal justice system at the time, accompanied by a plethora of recommendations for reform (Walker & Boehm, 1997). While not all proposed recommendations found immediate implementation, the commission’s work established a vital foundation for ongoing discourse surrounding American criminal justice system reform in the ensuing decades. This influence resonated, shaping the trajectory of these systems (Walker, 1997) as well as the study of criminology (Walker & Boehm, 1997) in subsequent decades.

Senate’s Crime Committee (Kefauver Committee)

By the late 1940s, organized crime stories dominated the newsstands, revealing a government plagued by extensive corruption and the influence of organized crime syndicates in major cities across the country (U.S. Senate, 1950-1951). By the decade’s end, concerns about corruption and unethical behavior, especially within law enforcement, had escalated, sparking discussion among elected officials in various political circles (Boston Public Library, 2024). These conversations revolved around finding appropriate responses to numerous requests for federal assistance to address organized crime, particularly its infiltration into interstate commerce, and the economic threats posed by labor racketeering.

To tackle these concerns, the Senate’s Crime Committee, officially known as the Senate Special Committee to Investigate Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce, was established in 1950. Commonly referred to as the Kefauver Committee after its chairman, Senator Estes Kefauver, this committee was tasked with investigating and addressing organized crime activities affecting interstate commerce (U.S. Senate, 1950-1951).

Over the following 15-month period, the committee conducted investigations into widespread police corruption by organized crime syndicates. It televised over a dozen hearings, presenting crucial evidence and featuring more than 600 witnesses. These hearings generated significant interest among millions of American viewers, who witnessed the testimonies of former mafia members such as Mobster Frank Costello, pictured in Figure 7.13 (U.S. Senate, 1950-1951). The public became acutely aware of the powerful influence of organized crime syndicates, particularly the Mafia, on both politics and law enforcement through the publicity of these hearings (Boston Public Library, 2024).

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Frank Costello, born Francesco Castiglia, was a prominent Italian-American gangster who rose to prominence during the Prohibition era and became a key figure in organized crime in New York City. Known as the “Prime Minister of the Underworld,” Costello was a skilled negotiator and strategist, playing a significant role in the formation of the National Crime Syndicate. Despite his criminal activities, Costello maintained a veneer of respectability and cultivated connections with politicians and law enforcement, which allowed him to evade prosecution for much of his career. He was eventually convicted of tax evasion in 1954 but continued to wield influence in the underworld until his death in 1973.
Photo Credit: World Telegram & Sun/Al Aumuller (photographer), Public Domain

The committee’s collaborative efforts yielded several positive outcomes. Firstly, it brought the pervasive influence of organized crime in the U.S. to the forefront of public awareness. FBI Director Hoover acknowledged the national scale of organized crime syndication and admitted the FBI’s failure to address the issue (Friedman, 2005). Additionally, the committee spotlighted organized crime’s involvement in the gambling industry, leading to the dissolution of legislative proposals and state ballots referendums concerning gambling legalization. While immediate legislative changes did not transpire, the Kefauver Committee recommended the expansion of civil law to combat organized crime, a recommendation Congress fulfilled in 1970 with the passing of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO).

Crucially, the committee’s collective efforts ignited future government actions against organized crime, leading to the creation of over 70 “crime commissions” at the state and local levels. For these reasons, the Kefauver Committee is widely viewed as a pivotal milestone in the federal government’s fight against organized crime. These accumulated pressures—corruption scandals, rising crime, civil unrest, and the failures of reactive policing—set the stage for a fundamental rethinking of law enforcement’s role in society, leading directly to the community policing era described in the next section.