4.4: References

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Baffour, F. D., Francis, A. P., Chong, M. D., & Harris, N. (2024). Prison overcrowding and harsh conditions: Health and human rights concerns to persons in custody, staff, and the community. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 51(3), 375-400. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548231219803 CC BY NC.

Barnes, H. E. (1927). The evolution of penology in Pennsylvania: A study in American social history. Bobbs-Merrill.

Bass, S. (2001). Policing space, policing race: Social control imperatives and police discretionary decisions. Social Justice, 28(1), 156-176. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29768062

Blomberg, T. G., & Lucken, K. (2010). American penology: A history of control (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Blumstein, A., & Wallman, J. (Eds.). (2000). The crime drop in America. Cambridge University Press.

Bopp, W. J. (1977). O. W. Wilson and the search for a police profession. Kennikat Press.

Boston Public Library. (2024, March 20). Historic Congressional Committee hearings and reports: Kefauver Committee (Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce), 1950-1951 [Research guide]. Retrieved April 25, 2024, from https://guides.bpl.org/Congress/Kefauver

Boucher d’Argis, A.-G. (1765). Police. In D. Diderot & J. d’Alembert (Eds.), Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Vol. 12, p. 905). Samuel Faulche.

Boydstun, J. E., & Sherry, M. E. (1975). San Diego community profile: Final report. Police Foundation. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/30160.pdf

Braga, A. A. (2008). Problem-oriented policing: principles, practice, and crime prevention (2nd ed.). Criminal Justice Press.

Brodeur, J.-P. (2010). The policing web. Oxford University Press.

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Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024, April 17). Private detectives and investigators. Occupational Outlook Handbook. U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved April 24, 2024, from https://www.bls.gov/ooh/protective-service/private-detectives-and-investigators.htm

Colvin, M. (1997). Penitentiaries, reformatories, and chain gangs: Social theory and the history of punishment in nineteenth-century America. Springer.

Commission to Investigate Alleged Police Corruption. (1973). The Knapp Commission report on police corruption. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/knapp-commission-report-police-corruption

Committee on Causes and Consequences of High Rates of Incarceration, Travis, J. (Ed.), Western, B. (Ed.), Redburn, S. (Ed.), Committee on Law and Justice, & Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. (2014). The growth of incarceration in the United States: Exploring causes and consequences. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18613

Crime Museum (2025), History of Criminal Law. Retrieved from https://www.crimemuseum.org/crime-library/criminal-law/history-of-criminal-law/

Crittenden, C. (2025). Introduction to the Criminal Justice System. UTC Pressbooks. Retrieved from https://utc.pressbooks.pub/crmj1100/

Dempsey, J. S., Forst, L. S., & Carter, S. B. (2018). Introduction to policing (9th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Douthit, N. (1975). August Vollmer, Berkeley’s first chief of police, and the emergence of police professionalism. California Historical Quarterly, 54(2), 101–124. https://doi.org/10.2307/25157560

Eastern State Penitentiary Task Force of the Preservation Coalition of Greater Philadelphia, & Marianna Thomas Architects. (1994, July 21). Eastern State Penitentiary historic structures report: Volume I. Eastern State Penitentiary. https://www.easternstate.org/sites/easternstate/files/inline-files/history-vol1.pdf

Ex Parte Crouse (1839)

Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison (A. Sheridan, Trans.). Vintage Books. (Original work published 1975)

Friedman, L. M. (1993). Crime and punishment In American history. Basic Books.

Hamann, B., Chauvin, C., Scott, F., Holcomb, M., Simek, P. (2024). Introduction to Criminal Justice. Louis Pressbooks. Retrieved from https://louis.pressbooks.pub/criminaljustice/

Hassan, S., Surrey, D., Ballantyne, L. (2023). Introduction to Criminology. Open Textbook UMN. Retrieved from https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/textbooks/1327

Hershberg, T. (1971-1972, Winter). Free Blacks in antebellum Philadelphia: A study of ex-slaves, freeborn, and socioeconomic decline. Journal of Social History, 5(2), 183-209. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3786411

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Kann, M. E. (2005). Punishment, prisons, and patriarchy. New York University Press.

Kell, G. (2017, April 19). August Vollmer biography explores famous police chief’s UC Berkeley ties. Berkeley News, University of California at Berkeley. https://news.berkeley.edu/2017/04/19/august-vollmer-biography-explores-famous-police-chiefs-uc-berkeley-ties

Kelling, G. L. (1987). Juveniles and police: The end of the nightstick. In F. X. Hartmann (Ed.), From children to citizens (Vol. II, pp. 203-218). Springer-Verlag.

Kelling, G. L., & Wilson, J. Q. (1982, March). Broken windows. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465/

Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the beginning: The definitive history of racist ideas in America. Nation Books.

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Kyckelhahn, T. (2012, December). State corrections expenditures, FY 1982-2010. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/scefy8210.pdf

Merlo, A., & Benekos, P. (2019). The Juvenile Justice System, Delinquency, Processing, and the Law (9th ed.) Pearson.

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Monkkonen, E. H. (1992). History of urban police. Crime and Justice, 15, 547-580. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1147625

National Archives. (2021, June 28). African American heritage: The Great Migration (1910 – 1970). Retrieved April 25, 2024, from https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/migrations/great-migration

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Oliver, W. M. (2017). August Vollmer: The father of American policing. Carolina Academic Press.

Oshinsky, D. M. (1997). “Worse than slavery”: Parchman Farm and the ordeal of Jim Crow justice. Free Press.

Pew Charitable Trusts. (2008, February 28). More than one in 100 adults are behind bars, Pew study finds [Press release]. https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/about/news-room/press-releases-and-statements/2008/02/28/more-than-one-in-100-adults-are-behind-bars-pew-study-finds

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Supplee, R., Gonzalez, M., Arungwa, S., Brown, I., Burke, A., Head-Potter, W., Wilkes, E. (n.d.). Introduction to the American Criminal Justice System: An Equity Lens. OpenOregon Pressbooks. Retrieved from https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/crimjustsysintro1e/

Thibaut, J. (1982). “To pave the way to penitence”: Prisoners and discipline at the Eastern State Penitentiary 1829-1835. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 106(2), 187-222. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20091663

Uchida, C. D. (1993). The development of the American police: An historical overview. In R. G. Dunham & G. P. Alpert (Eds.), Critical issues in policing: Contemporary readings (2nd ed., pp. 19-35). Waveland Press.

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Walker, S. (Ed.), & Boehm, R. (Comp.). (1997). Records of the Wickersham Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement: Part 1: Records of the Committee on Official Lawlessness. University Publications of America. https://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/1965_wickershamcommpt1.pdf

Walker, S. A. (1977). A critical history of police reform: The emergence of professionalism. Lexington Books.

Walker, S., & Katz, C. M. (2001). The police in America: An introduction (4th ed.). Macmillan/McGraw-Hill School.

Western, B., & Pettit, B. (2010, Summer). Incarceration & social inequality. Daedalus, 139(3), 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1162/DAED_a_00019

Willis, J. J. (2014). A recent history of the police. In M. D. Reisig & R. J. Kane (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of police and policing (pp. 3-33). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199843886.013.011

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Young, J. (2011). The criminological imagination. Polity Press.