3: Course Design for Engagement and Opportunity
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\(\newcommand{\avec}{\mathbf a}\) \(\newcommand{\bvec}{\mathbf b}\) \(\newcommand{\cvec}{\mathbf c}\) \(\newcommand{\dvec}{\mathbf d}\) \(\newcommand{\dtil}{\widetilde{\mathbf d}}\) \(\newcommand{\evec}{\mathbf e}\) \(\newcommand{\fvec}{\mathbf f}\) \(\newcommand{\nvec}{\mathbf n}\) \(\newcommand{\pvec}{\mathbf p}\) \(\newcommand{\qvec}{\mathbf q}\) \(\newcommand{\svec}{\mathbf s}\) \(\newcommand{\tvec}{\mathbf t}\) \(\newcommand{\uvec}{\mathbf u}\) \(\newcommand{\vvec}{\mathbf v}\) \(\newcommand{\wvec}{\mathbf w}\) \(\newcommand{\xvec}{\mathbf x}\) \(\newcommand{\yvec}{\mathbf y}\) \(\newcommand{\zvec}{\mathbf z}\) \(\newcommand{\rvec}{\mathbf r}\) \(\newcommand{\mvec}{\mathbf m}\) \(\newcommand{\zerovec}{\mathbf 0}\) \(\newcommand{\onevec}{\mathbf 1}\) \(\newcommand{\real}{\mathbb R}\) \(\newcommand{\twovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\ctwovec}[2]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\threevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cthreevec}[3]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfourvec}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\fivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{r}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\cfivevec}[5]{\left[\begin{array}{c}#1 \\ #2 \\ #3 \\ #4 \\ #5 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\mattwo}[4]{\left[\begin{array}{rr}#1 \amp #2 \\ #3 \amp #4 \\ \end{array}\right]}\) \(\newcommand{\laspan}[1]{\text{Span}\{#1\}}\) \(\newcommand{\bcal}{\cal B}\) \(\newcommand{\ccal}{\cal C}\) \(\newcommand{\scal}{\cal S}\) \(\newcommand{\wcal}{\cal W}\) \(\newcommand{\ecal}{\cal E}\) \(\newcommand{\coords}[2]{\left\{#1\right\}_{#2}}\) \(\newcommand{\gray}[1]{\color{gray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\lgray}[1]{\color{lightgray}{#1}}\) \(\newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}}\) \(\newcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\col}{\text{Col}}\) \(\renewcommand{\row}{\text{Row}}\) \(\newcommand{\nul}{\text{Nul}}\) \(\newcommand{\var}{\text{Var}}\) \(\newcommand{\corr}{\text{corr}}\) \(\newcommand{\len}[1]{\left|#1\right|}\) \(\newcommand{\bbar}{\overline{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bhat}{\widehat{\bvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\bperp}{\bvec^\perp}\) \(\newcommand{\xhat}{\widehat{\xvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\vhat}{\widehat{\vvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\uhat}{\widehat{\uvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\what}{\widehat{\wvec}}\) \(\newcommand{\Sighat}{\widehat{\Sigma}}\) \(\newcommand{\lt}{<}\) \(\newcommand{\gt}{>}\) \(\newcommand{\amp}{&}\) \(\definecolor{fillinmathshade}{gray}{0.9}\)Good course design focuses on what students need, as well as what you want to teach.
One of the most effective ways to ensure that students thrive in their academic journey is through engaging course design and the provision of diverse learning opportunities. A well-designed course fosters motivation, deepens understanding, and improves student retention, making education more meaningful and impactful. Engagement is a key factor in student success. When students find a course stimulating and interactive, they are more likely to invest time and effort into their learning. An engaging course design incorporates elements that captivate students' interests, promote active participation, and create a dynamic educational experience. This can be achieved through interactive discussions, hands-on activities, and real-world applications that connect course content to students' lives. While many faculty members may note that they do not develop their own courses or must follow a prescribed curriculum, effective course design goes beyond just the content. As you will see, the way material is delivered can be just as impactful as the curriculum itself in creating an engaging learning experience.
Benefits of Engaging Course Design
- Enhances Student Motivation: Courses that are designed with engaging content encourage students to take an active role in their learning. Incorporating diverse teaching methods such as multimedia, gamification, and collaborative projects keeps students motivated and eager to participate.
- Promotes Active Learning: Active learning strategies, such as case studies, problem-solving exercises, and group discussions, allow students to apply theoretical concepts in practical ways. This approach leads to deeper comprehension and long-term retention of information.
- Encourages Critical Thinking and Creativity: When students are challenged to analyze, evaluate, and create, they develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Engaging course design fosters intellectual curiosity and encourages students to explore new ideas beyond textbook knowledge.
- Improves Retention and Academic Performance: Research shows that students who are actively engaged in their courses are more likely to stay enrolled and perform better academically. Engaging course design minimizes passive learning, reducing dropout rates and increasing student success.
- Supports Diverse Learning Needs: Students come from varied backgrounds and have different learning styles. Offering multiple means of instruction—such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning approaches—ensures that all students have equal opportunities to grasp course content.
Lecturing as Active Learning
Lectures remain a cornerstone of teaching in higher education, but when delivered as passive monologues, they often fall short of engaging students or fostering deep learning. To transform lecturing into a High-Impact Teaching Practice (HITP), instructors can incorporate active learning strategies tailored to their modality—whether online, in a large lecture hall, or in a small seminar setting. These strategies promote student engagement, critical thinking, and retention, aligning lecturing with the principles of backward design, Universal Design for Learning (UDL), and collaborative learning.
Key Strategies for Active Learning
Chunk Content for Better Retention
- Break your lecture into smaller, digestible segments of 10–15 minutes.
- After each segment, engage students with activities, reflections, or questions.
- In large lectures, tools like clickers or polling apps can gather responses efficiently. Online, use breakout rooms or chat for small-group discussions.
In an online biology lecture, present the stages of mitosis in 10-minute chunks, followed by a poll where students match each stage to a visual diagram.
Scaffolding for Deeper Understanding
- Begin with foundational concepts and build progressively toward more complex ideas.
- Use analogies, visuals, and real-world examples to bridge knowledge gaps.
- Provide scaffolding in the form of guided notes or outlines, which students can complete during the lecture.
In a small seminar on literature, start by discussing the historical context of a novel, then scaffold toward analyzing a specific passage for thematic elements. Use guided prompts to direct the analysis.
Pause for Reflection and Discussion
- Incorporate short pauses every 12–18 minutes to allow students to process information, rework notes, or discuss a question.
- The Pause Procedure is especially effective in large classes, giving students time to reflect and engage without losing momentum.
In a large lecture hall, pause to ask students to write down one question they have about the material and discuss it with a neighbor. Online, use a chat prompt like “What’s one takeaway from this section?”
Integrate Mini-Quizzes and Polls
- Use low-stakes quizzes or polls to reinforce learning and check comprehension.
- Tools like Poll Everywhere, Mentimeter, or Kahoot are effective for in-person and online lectures.
- In small seminars, verbal quizzes or quick individual responses can achieve the same goal.
During an economics lecture, use a poll to ask students which economic model applies to a hypothetical scenario. Follow up by explaining the correct answer and its rationale.
Use Demonstrations and Predictions
- Engage students by having them predict the outcome of a demonstration or scenario before revealing the result.
- Follow up with a discussion of why the prediction was correct or incorrect.
In a physics class, ask students to predict how changing a variable in an experiment will affect the outcome. Conduct the experiment live or through a video and discuss the results.
Build in Opportunities for Reflection
- Incorporate “Minute Papers,” where students write briefly about what they’ve learned or what remains unclear.
- Encourage students to connect lecture content to their prior knowledge or real-world applications.
In a public health lecture, ask students to write for one minute on how the day’s topic applies to a current health issue in their community. Online, use a shared Google Doc for responses.
Large Classes
- Use technology to maintain engagement: polling tools, live quizzes, or digital Q&A platforms like Slido.
- Encourage peer learning with structured think-pair-share activities.
- Use visuals and multimedia to break up the lecture and maintain interest.
Small Seminars
- Foster discussion by posing open-ended questions and allowing students to take the lead in parts of the lecture.
- Use the seminar format to dive deeper into analysis or application, supported by reflective activities.
Online Lectures
- Leverage breakout rooms for small-group discussions and collaborative problem-solving.
- Use asynchronous tools like discussion boards for reflection and interaction between live sessions.
- Provide clear instructions for active learning activities and ensure the accessibility of all materials.
Lecturing as a High-Impact Teaching Practice (HITP)
By integrating active learning into lectures, instructors transform a traditionally passive format into an engaging, collaborative experience that embodies HITPs. This approach:
- Encourages metacognition by prompting students to reflect on their learning.
- Fosters collaborative learning through peer discussions and shared activities.
- Aligns with learning-centered course design by focusing on significant learning outcomes rather than content coverage.
- Builds student confidence by demonstrating that their participation and feedback shape the learning process.
Example Lecture Flow
- Introduction (5 minutes): Present the lecture’s goals and key questions. Use a quick poll to assess students’ prior knowledge.
- First Chunk (10–15 minutes): Explain a key concept with visuals and examples. Use scaffolding to connect new ideas to prior material.
- Pause and Activity (5 minutes): Ask students to discuss the concept with a partner or solve a related problem individually. Share responses as a class.
- Second Chunk (10–15 minutes): Introduce a second concept, building on the first. Use a mini-quiz to check for understanding.
- Reflection (5 minutes): Use a “Muddiest Point” prompt: “What was the most confusing part of today’s lecture?”
- Conclusion (5 minutes): Summarize key points and connect them to upcoming topics or assignments.
Practical Tips for Instructors
- Record and Reflect: Record your lecture to evaluate pacing, clarity, and engagement strategies.
- Plan Timing: Use a timer to ensure you balance content delivery with active learning opportunities.
- Gather Feedback: Use student feedback to refine your methods and identify what works best in different contexts.
- Start Small: If you’re new to active lecturing, begin by incorporating one or two strategies, such as pauses for reflection or mini-quizzes, and build from there.
By embracing these principles, instructors can create lectures that are not only informative but also engaging and impactful, ensuring that students leave with a deeper understanding and lasting skills.
Facilitating Discussions
Discussions can be a powerful teaching strategy, enhancing student motivation, intellectual agility, and democratic habits. When thoughtfully planned and facilitated, they provide a space for students to articulate and defend positions, evaluate evidence, and consider multiple perspectives. However, discussions are inherently unpredictable and require instructors to surrender some control over the flow of information. This unpredictability can be daunting, but with careful preparation, discussions can achieve a balance between lively exploration and focused learning.
This section explores strategies to plan and lead effective discussions, organized around three critical aspects: cognitive, social/emotional, and physical factors.
Cognitive Factors: Guiding the Intellectual Process
Determine and Communicate Learning Objectives
Effective discussions begin with a clear purpose. What should students learn or practice during the discussion? Your objectives might include:
- Analyzing Arguments: Compare evidence and perspectives in assigned readings.
- Creative Problem-Solving: Develop and defend a design for a sustainable city.
- Practical Application: Formulate policy recommendations for a contemporary issue.
Clearly articulating and sharing these objectives with students helps focus their thinking and motivates meaningful participation.
Plan a Strategy
A well-thought-out plan provides structure while allowing room for flexibility. Key considerations include:
- Preparation: Should students read a case study, complete a reflection, or watch a video beforehand?
- Framing Questions: What questions will stimulate discussion and deeper analysis?
- Participation Formats: Will the discussion involve the whole class, small groups, or pairs?
- Managing Challenges: How will you address dominance, digressions, or silence?
Having a plan ensures that discussions align with learning goals and adapt to students’ needs.
Ask Good Questions
Good questions spark engagement and promote critical thinking. Consider these types:
- Exploratory: Probe for facts or foundational knowledge.
- Relational: Draw comparisons between ideas or themes.
- Hypothetical: Explore the implications of changes in context.
- Summary: Synthesize key points and insights.
Start with convergent questions (e.g., “What are the main arguments in the reading?”) to establish shared understanding, then transition to divergent questions (e.g., “What are the broader implications of these arguments?”) for deeper exploration.
When instructors are nervous that a discussion might flag, they tend to fall prey to some common questioning errors. These include:
Asking too many questions at once: Instructors often make the mistake of asking a string of questions together, e.g., “What do you think the author is trying to say here? Do you agree with him? Is his evidence convincing? Did you like this article?” Students may get confused trying to figure out which question to address first. Asking a number of questions together may also conflate issues you really want to help students distinguish (for example, the author’s thesis versus the kinds of evidence he uses to support it).
Asking a question and answering it yourself: We have all had the experience of asking a question only to encounter blank stares and silence. The temptation under these circumstances is to jump in and answer your own question, if only to relieve the uncomfortable silence. Don’t assume, though, that students’ silence necessarily indicates that they are stumped (or unprepared); sometimes, they are simply thinking the question through and formulating an answer. Be careful not to preempt this process by jumping in too early.
Failing to probe or explore the implications of answers: One mistake instructors can make in leading a discussion is not to follow up sufficiently on student contributions. It is important not only to get students talking but to probe them about their reasoning, ask for evidence, explore the implications of what they say, etc. Follow-up questions push students to think more deeply, to substantiate their claims, and to consider the practical impact of particular perspectives.
Asking unconnected questions: In the best discussions, there is a logical progression from question to question so that, ultimately, the discussion tells (or reveals) a story. When you are planning your discussion questions, think about how they fit together.
Asking yes/no or leading questions: Asking questions with a yes/no answer can be the starting point of a good discussion, but only if there is a follow-up question that calls for explanation or substantiation. Otherwise, yes/no questions tend to be conversation-stoppers. By the same token, discussions can stall if the instructor’s questions are overly leading, i.e., if there is clearly an answer the instructor wants, and the students’ task is simply to guess it, rather than to think for themselves.
Ignoring or failing to build on answers: If students do not feel like their voices have weight in the discussion, their motivation to participate drops. Thus, it is important to acknowledge student contributions, responding enthusiastically when they are insightful (“That’s an excellent point, Sarah; could you elaborate further?”) and pointing out when they contain inaccuracies or problematic reasoning (“Take another look at the article, Tranh; is that really what the author is claiming?”). If you do not wish to play such a directive role yourself – and want students to develop the habit of assessing and responding to one another’s contributions – you can throw student comments back to the class for evaluation (for example, “Do the rest of you agree with John’s recommendation? What would be some possible consequences if this plan of action were followed?”)
Discussions thrive with a clear focus. Use strategies like summarizing key points mid-discussion or redirecting when off-track (e.g., “How does this connect to our main question?”). Recognize signs of stagnation, such as repetition or apathy, and reinvigorate with new questions or group formats.
Bring Closure
Leave time to synthesize the discussion:
- Summarize key insights and unresolved questions.
- Assign a reflection or ask students to identify the most important takeaway.
- Provide 2-3 “big picture” conclusions to reinforce learning objectives.
Social and Emotional Factors: Building Trust and Engagement
Demonstrate Relevance
Explain how discussion skills—such as articulating positions or debating respectfully—translate to academic and professional success. Connect topics to students’ interests, contemporary issues, or future goals (e.g., “Think about how you’d explain this policy in a job interview.”).
Encourage Participation
Create a supportive environment by:
- Setting Expectations Early: Foster participation from the first class with icebreakers and ground rules (e.g., “Speak respectfully and avoid put-downs”).
- Ensuring Preparation: Assign pre-discussion work to focus student thinking (e.g., reflection prompts, discussion questions).
- Modeling Good Behavior: Demonstrate active listening, respectful disagreement, and thoughtful engagement.
- Providing Alternatives: Use discussion boards or small-group work for students hesitant to speak in large groups.
Monitor Group Dynamics
Balance participation by encouraging quieter students and managing dominant voices. Use strategies like calling on students equitably or asking dominant contributors to reflect while others speak.
Anticipate and address emotional or sensitive moments with strategies like pausing for written reflections or reinforcing ground rules.
Make High-Quality Participation Count
Define and reward meaningful contributions through a rubric. For example, high-quality participation might include synthesizing ideas, providing evidence, or respectfully challenging perspectives.
Physical Factors: Creating a Conducive Environment
- Arrange the Classroom: Seating arrangements should align with the discussion goals. Use a circle or U-shape for dialogic engagement or clusters for small-group work. For larger classes, use strategies like polling or rotating spokespeople to ensure participation.
- Adapt to Constraints: Even in less-than-ideal spaces, discussions can thrive. For example, in lecture halls, use tools like microphones or discussion boards to facilitate interaction. Use visuals, such as whiteboards or slides, to track progress and focus attention.
Effective discussions require thoughtful attention to cognitive, social/emotional, and physical dimensions. By setting clear goals, asking good questions, fostering an inclusive environment, and creating a supportive physical space, instructors can transform discussions into vibrant learning experiences that engage students deeply and develop critical skills.
Thinking Routines from Project Zero
Thinking routines are simple, flexible activities designed to scaffold students’ thinking and make their cognitive processes more visible. Originally developed by researchers at Harvard’s Project Zero, these routines support thoughtful engagement with content across disciplines, age groups, and learning environments.
Each routine consists of a small set of questions or steps that help students organize, extend, or reflect on their thinking. They can be used at any point in a lesson—whether to introduce a topic, explore ideas in depth, or reflect on learning. By encouraging learners to recognize and name their “thinking moves,” these routines promote metacognition, curiosity, and deeper understanding.
A wide range of thinking routines and suggestions for how to apply them can be found on the Project Zero website (opens in new window). We list and summarize a few of the core thinking routines below.
Core Thinking Routines
These are simple routines that are applicable across disciplines, topics, and age groups and can be used at multiple points throughout a learning experience or unit of study. These are a good place to start if you or your students are new to thinking routines. Find more Thinking Routines and applications at the Project Zero website (opens in new window). (Note that, as currently designed, you will need to click through the “Resource Links” at the bottom right to access the full PDF of the thinking routine.)
- Brainstorm a list of different perspectives.
- Choose one perspective to explore, using these sentence-starters:
- I am thinking of … the topic … from the viewpoint of … the viewpoint you’ve chosen
- I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. Be an actor—take on the character of your viewpoint
- A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint
Purpose: This routine helps students see and explore multiple perspectives. It helps them understand that different people can have different kinds of connections to the same thing and that these different connections influence what people see and think.
Application: The routine works well with topics and artworks that deal with complex issues. It also works well when students are having a hard time seeing other perspectives or when things seem like there are only two sides to an issue. The routine can be used to open discussions about dilemmas and other controversial issues.
Drawing on your investigation, experience, prior knowledge, or reading:
- Make a claim about (or give an explanation for, or offer an interpretation of) the topic.
- Identify support (things you see, feel, know) for your claim.
- Ask a question related to your claim or the support. What isn’t explained?
Purpose: This routine supports reasoning by having students form claims, explanations, or interpretations and support them with evidence. Questioning claims helps students see reasoning as an ongoing process.
Application: Statements of fact or belief are presented everywhere. This routine is designed to help students take notice of claims and thoughtfully examine them. Use the routine with any topic, work of art, piece of text, poem, etc., to invite careful reasoning and evaluation.
E = Excited
What excites you about this idea or proposition? What’s the upside?
W = Worrisome
What do you find worrisome about this idea or proposition? What’s the downside?
N = Need to Know
What else do you need to know or find out about this idea or proposition? What additional information would help you to evaluate things?
S = Stance or Suggestion for Moving Forward
What is your current stance or opinion on the idea or proposition? How might you move forward in your evaluation of this idea or proposition?
Purpose: This routine helps students flesh out an idea or proposition and eventually evaluate it.
Application: This routine works well to explore various sides and facets of a proposition or idea prior to taking a stand or expressing an opinion on it. For instance, the school may be considering the idea of a dress code, a teacher might present the class with the idea of altering the room arrangement, a character in a book might be confronted with making a choice, a politician might be putting forth a new way of structuring taxes, and so on.
Consider what you have just read, seen, or heard, and then ask yourself:
- How are the ideas and information connected to what you already know?
- What new ideas did you get that broadened your thinking or extended it in different directions?
- What challenges or puzzles emerge for you?
Purpose: This routine helps students connect new ideas to those they know and encourages them to reflect upon how they have extended their thinking as a result of what they are learning about or experiencing.
Application: Use this routine when you want students to make explicit connections to something previously learned or experienced. Since it is designed to help students process new information actively, it works well as the conclusion to lessons in which students have been reading, watching videos, or otherwise taking in new information. Another approach is to use the routine to close the discussion of a topic or unit of study in order to help students synthesize the information. Some questions you might consider in your planning: Are there connections to be made between this content and what students already know? Will students be engaging with new information that they might find challenging?
Think about what you have learned about the topic we have been studying, and complete the following sentence stems:
- I used to think…
- Now I think…
Purpose: This routine helps students to reflect on their thinking about a topic or issue and explore how and why their thinking has changed. It helps consolidate new learning.
Application: This routine can be used whenever students’ initial thoughts, opinions, or beliefs are likely to have changed as a result of a learning experience. This may be after reading new information, watching a film, listening to a speaker, experiencing something new, having a class discussion, at the end of a unit of study, and so on.
What do you see?
What do you think about that?
What does it make you wonder?
Purpose: This routine encourages students to make careful observations and thoughtful interpretations. It helps stimulate curiosity and sets the stage for inquiry.
Application: Use this routine when you want students to think carefully about why something looks the way it does or is the way it is. Use the routine with a relevant object (such as an artwork, image, artifact, chart, video, etc.) at the beginning of a new unit to motivate student interest, or try it with an object that connects to a topic during the unit of study. Consider using the routine with an interesting object near the end of a unit to encourage students to apply their knowledge and ideas.
Pose a question to students. Give students a few minutes to think.
Invite students to pair with a nearby student to share their thoughts.
Purpose: This routine promotes understanding through active reasoning and explanation. Because students listen to and share ideas with others, it also encourages students to understand multiple perspectives.
Application: This routine can be used when it would help for students to process their thinking aloud with another student. For example, you may ask students to Think, Pair, Share before starting a science experiment, in the middle of solving a math problem, after reading a passage of a book, etc. Sharing can also be done in small groups.
What do you think you know about this topic?
What questions or puzzles do you have about this topic?
How might you explore your puzzles about this topic?
Purpose: This routine activates prior knowledge, generates ideas and curiosity, and prepares students for deeper inquiry.
Application: This routine works especially well when introducing a new topic, concept, or theme in the classroom. It helps students recall what they already think they know about the topic and then invites them to identify puzzling questions or areas of interest to pursue. This routine can help you gauge students’ current understanding of a topic and inform your subsequent lesson planning. You might return to this thinking routine throughout the study of a topic to surface changes in student conceptions.
What’s going on?
What do you see that makes you say that?
Purpose: This routine cultivates observation, description, explanation-building, and evidence-based reasoning. Because students share their interpretations, they are encouraged to see multiple perspectives.
Application: Use this routine when you want students to look closely at something and uncover their reasoning about the way it works, how it came to be, or why it is the way it is. For example, you can use this routine when students are looking at works of art or historical artifacts, reading poetry, making scientific observations and hypotheses, or delving into broad conceptual topics like culture, change, or creativity. It is also useful for gathering information on students’ prior understandings when introducing a new topic.