10.2: Deeper dive into modes

It's important to remember that these modes are flexible. Most modern documentaries combine elements from several of these categories. Since planning happens before filming, you should select a specific mode. However, once filming begins, a documentary might shift toward a more engaging approach. Starting with one mode shouldn't prevent you from exploring a second or third option. Ultimately, the audience's response and critique depend on the content, so guiding the story effectively is crucial.

Examples of films showcasing these modes are easily available on YouTube for free, and I have provided links. Some titles may only be trailers or clips from the film, but you’ll get the idea of the mode used from the trailer. I've been able to find nearly all of these titles on either paid or free streaming services.

Expository

Narration often takes on an objective role, serving as the "voice of God" to explain a film’s content clearly and authoritatively. This narration acts as the main guide for viewers, supported by coverage or B-roll footage that enhances the spoken words. You might recognize this technique from television news or the documentaries many of us watched in elementary school. The way rhetoric works with visual support, especially in expository style, remains a popular and powerful method for sharing information today. Overall, expository techniques are effective tools for engaging and informing an audience.

Examples of the Expository Style

• “Why We Fight” (1942-43) was a series of seven propaganda films commissioned by the United States Department of War. It was originally made to help American soldiers understand why the United States was involved in the war, but U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt ordered its release for public viewing. Their goal was to explain U.S. involvement in World War II. This exemplifies a classic expository style.
• "Inside Job" (2010) by Charles Ferguson: This documentary explores the 2008 financial crisis through interviews and visual evidence to explain the events and their causes.
• "The Social Dilemma" (2020) by Jeff Orlowski: This film explores the negative effects of social media and technology, using evidence and expert insights to show the dangers of these platforms.
• "March of the Penguins" (2005) by Luc Jacquet: This film follows the lives of Emperor penguins in Antarctica, combining stunning visuals with informative narration.
• "The Dust Bowl" (2012) by Ken Burns: A historical account that uses photos and facts to explain the causes and impact of the drought during the Great Depression.
• "The Blue Planet" (2001) by David Attenborough: Narration, combined with Attenborough’s experience in nature, explores the mysteries of the ocean and its inhabitants.
• "An Inconvenient Truth" (2006) by Davis Guggenheim: This documentary on climate change uses data and predictions to present the science behind climate change.
• "The Civil War" (1990) by Ken Burns: This documentary uses narration, interviews, and photos to tell the story of the American Civil War.

Observational

Observational mode documentaries aim to create cinematic realism. This style is often called cinéma vérité or a fly-on-the-wall approach to documentary filmmaking. It typically involves low budgets, small crews, and natural lighting. The filmmaker ‘observes’ the drama as it unfolds in real time, fostering a sense of authenticity. When given a choice of styles to experiment with, my students often choose this mode for its non-confrontational approach and its ability to be accomplished with a limited crew.

The camera, often portable, helps viewers feel like they're right there with the subjects, sharing their experiences. Thanks to the technological breakthroughs of the 1960s—like lighter 16mm cameras and shoulder mounts—filmmakers didn’t have to rely so heavily on tripods and could carry lighter, less bulky gear. Today, smaller cameras equipped with low-light sensors, directional microphones, and external audio recorders make it easier for small crews to capture authentic moments. Having fewer people and less noticeable equipment encourages subjects to act more naturally and genuinely.

Frederick Wiseman, a Boston-based director, is known as a master of observational cinema. Renowned for his pioneering work exploring institutions and social issues, Wiseman’s 1968 film “High School” provides an honest look into a Philadelphia public high school using a fly-on-the-wall style. Wiseman makes his films without interference, interviews, commentary, or narration, arranging scenes so they speak for themselves.

Wiseman records sound on location, holding the microphone without looking through the viewfinder, which helps him focus on the action as it happens and anticipate events. He communicates with his cameraperson using prearranged hand signals and directs by pointing his mic at what he wants filmed.

Observational documentaries typically focus only on observation, allowing viewers to draw their own conclusions. They follow strict rules: no music, no interviews, no scene setups, and no narration. The fly-on-the-wall style is emphasized through long clips and minimal editing, offering footage that feels like witnessing the subjects’ experiences firsthand.

Examples of the Observational Style

• “Don’t Look Back” (1967) by D.A. Pennebaker: Follows Bob Dylan on the road between and during concerts.
• “Titicut Follies” (1967) by Frederick Wiseman: The stark and difficult-to-watch treatment of patients at the Bridgewater State Hospital.
• "Primary“ (1960) by Robert Drew: Camera hits the campaign trail with John F. Kennedy and Hubert Humphrey.
• "A Day in the Life of a Rice Farmer" (2020) - License: CC-BY Source: https://vimeo.com/41020039 Creator: Alexander Baumgartner

Participatory

The Participatory mode shows the filmmaker and the subject actively engaging in the scene. It often emphasizes the filmmaker’s perspective and provides social commentary. This method is quite different from the Expository and Observational styles. In participatory mode, the filmmaker’s presence should appear to be equal to or nearly equal to that of the main subject. Filmmakers like Michael Moore (“Sicko” 2002), Morgan Spurlock (“Supersize Me” 2004), and Nick Broomfield (“Kurt and Courtney” 1998) helped popularize this style of first-person documentary storytelling.

“Bowling for Columbine,” a 2002 documentary film written, produced, directed, and narrated by Michael Moore, explores what Moore claims are the main causes of the Columbine High School massacre in 1999 and other instances of gun violence. He examines the background and environment of the massacre, along with common public opinions and assumptions about related issues. The film also examines the nature of violence in the United States and of American violence abroad.

Moore’s documentaries mainly provide a platform for his brand of social commentary. The lively filming style brings to life ‘man on the street’ interviews, surprising encounters with influential figures, and thoughtfully staged sequences with the director. Plus, a mostly one-sided narration often helps share Moore’s unique perspective, making his documentaries engaging and thought-provoking.

Kurt & Courtney: A 1998 British documentary by Nick Broomfield examines the circumstances surrounding Kurt Cobain's death and accusations against Courtney Love. Filmmaker Nick Broomfield works with a small crew, personally managing the audio mixer and boom mic. He often captures footage while traveling to the next location and adds commentary to the camera when not conducting quick interviews. In participatory mode, the filmmaker interacts with subjects rather than just observing silently. The film reflects a collaboration between filmmaker and subject, meaning the filmmaker's voice is heard throughout. Even when speaking directly with subjects, the filmmaker still controls how the interview is conducted.

Examples of the Participatory Style

• "Grizzly Man": a 2005 American documentary film by German director Werner Herzog that chronicles the life and death of bear enthusiast Timothy Treadwell. This clip is shows a disturbing moment in the movie when Herzog consoles and questions Treadwell’s wife as she watches footage of the bear attacking her husband.
• "Chronicle of a Summer" (1961), directed by Jean Rouch and Edgar Morin, explores the issues of authenticity when a camera is present. French citizens are interviewed, shown the footage, and asked to comment on the truthfulness of their answers.
• "Sherman's March" (1986) Ross McElwee, starts to explore General Sherman's march during the Civil War, but radically shifts (at 56 seconds in) to his relationships and search for love.
• "Sicko" (2007) is an American political documentary that explores the U.S. healthcare system. This Michael Moore film compares the profit-driven, non-universal U.S. system with the nonprofit healthcare systems of Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and Cuba.
• "In the Year of the Pig" (1968) is an American documentary film directed by Emile de Antonio about American involvement in the Vietnam War. The film utilizes both expository (in its use of narration and interviews) and performative modes (through its use of stylistic editing and heavy emphasis on the filmmaker’s perspective. Emphasis on the filmmaker's perspective: De Antonio's anti-war stance is evident through his selection and arrangement of materials. The use of found footage allows the film to present a range of perspectives and historical events without direct, explicit narration.

Reflexive

The Reflexive Mode emphasizes the filmmaking process. These self-aware documentaries encourage viewers to question the credibility and neutrality of what they see. Reflexive documentaries challenge traditional ideas of objectivity and truth in documentary film, often prompting viewers to think critically about the medium itself. They are often thought-provoking and intellectually engaging, fostering discussions about the boundaries between reality and representation in documentaries.

Reflexive documentaries are constructions of reality. An audience is never completely sure if they are watching something authentic. "F for Fake" (1973), directed by Orson Welles, is a prime example of a reflexive documentary. It examines themes of art forgery and deception while highlighting the manipulation and ambiguity present in filmmaking. Welles himself appears on screen, commenting on the storytelling process and the nature of truth.

In Dziga Vertov’s “The Man With A Movie Camera” (1929), viewers realize they are watching not real events but a constructed reality. The film is silent, with no intertitles, depicting a day in a city in 1929. The avant-garde classic shows the cameraman capturing shots, with brief sequences of a film editor working with the frames. Through the juxtaposition of scenes, Vertov suggests that the film is being assembled before our eyes. Here is the entire feature.

“Exit Through the Gift Shop: A Banksy Film” is a 2010 British documentary directed by street artist Banksy. It tells the story of Thierry Guetta, a French immigrant living in Los Angeles, and his obsession with street art. The film follows Guetta's constant documentation of his every waking moment, from a chance encounter with his cousin, the artist Invader, to his introduction to various street artists, including Banksy, whose identity is kept hidden by covering his face and voice. Since its release, there has been much debate over whether the documentary is genuine. Banksy has replied "Yes" to questions about the film in interviews.

Examples of Reflexive documentaries

• "Viet Given Name Nam" (1989) challenges traditional documentary structures. In Trinh T. Minh-ha’s film, the interviews are not shown or heard directly from the interviewees; instead, they are conveyed by others hired to recite the interview text.
• "The Act of Killing" (2012), directed by Joshua Oppenheimer, is a documentary that examines the 1965 Indonesian mass killings through the perspective of the perpetrators. The film is highly reflexive, as it has the subjects reenacting their crimes and discussing the process of making the documentary itself. It raises important questions about the ethics of representation and the filmmaker's role in shaping the narrative. Warning: this film has extremely violent content.
• "Stories We Tell" (2012), directed by Sarah Polley, explores her family's history and hidden secrets. Using interviews, home movies, and reenactments, Polley blurs the line between reality and fiction, prompting viewers to question the truth and how memory is constructed.
• "Casting JonBenet" (2017), directed by Kitty Green, is a documentary that investigates the infamous JonBenet Ramsey murder case by having actors audition for roles in reenacting the events. The film highlights the actors' personal connections to the case and examines how public perceptions are influenced by media portrayals.
• "The Thin Blue Line" (1988) Directed by Errol Morris, this documentary played a crucial role in the exoneration of a man wrongly convicted of murder. Morris's use of reenactments and interviews with key figures involved in the case highlights the subjective nature of the criminal justice system and the power of documentary filmmaking to influence it. This discussion shows how Morris used the Reflexive Mode to present multiple perspectives.
• Rob Reiner’s “This is Spinal Tap,” (a ‘mockumentary’) about a fictional heavy metal band in decline. Reiner's tools for satirizing both heavy metal culture and rock documentary conventions include fake interviews, fake concert clips, improvised dialogue, and a ‘shaky cam’ shooting style. The satirical elements represent real experiences — intra-band conflict, a decline in popularity, the band's fight to regain success, and the final concert.
• “Chronique d’un été” (in French, some English clips on YT) (1961) by Rouch and Morin stages conversations about truth and performance in front of the camera.

Poetic

Poetic documentaries highlight artistic expression and emotional depth, offering viewers a warm and personal experience. They feel like visual or musical essays, using beautiful visuals and sounds to stir feelings instead of following a conventional story. Sometimes called abstract or avant-garde, these films prioritize style and mood, creating a rich atmosphere or evoking special emotions, rather than sticking to a clear narrative.

The visually stunning film "Baraka" (1992) explores themes of humanity and the natural world through a series of breathtaking images from around the globe. Without any narration, it relies on powerful imagery and music to convey its message, offering an engaging experience for viewers. Similarly, Godfrey Reggio’s "Koyaanisqatsi" (1982) uses music to communicate its message, with Philip Glass's score serving as a reflective meditation on the impacts of human development and industrialization on the environment. Along with Reggio’s "Powaqqatsi" and "Naqoyqatsi," these films comprise the captivating Qatsi Trilogy.

Filmmakers working in the poetic mode usually focus on cinematic elements rather than content to create visual poetry. Shot design, composition, and rhythm achieved through editing are key features of the genre. If there is a narrative, it is conveyed visually rather than through words.

Examples of the Poetic Style

• "Sans Soleil" (1983) Directed by Chris Marker, this film is a cinematic essay that combines footage from different countries and a contemplative voiceover to examine memory, perception, and the human experience.
• "Leviathan" (2012), directed by Lucien Castaing-Taylor and Verena Paravel, offers an immersive documentary that delivers a visceral and sensory look into the world of commercial fishing. It forgoes traditional storytelling, instead surrounding viewers with the sights and sounds of life at sea. Here is an eight-minute clip from the documentary.
• "The Arbor" (2010), directed by Clio Barnard, is a documentary that combines interviews with actors lip-syncing to the actual words of people involved in the life of British playwright Andrea Dunbar. The film provides a unique mix of documentary and dramatic storytelling.
• "Rain" (1929) This Joris Ivens’s City Symphony classic shows how a rainstorm transforms the Dutch city of Amsterdam.

Performative

The performative mode occurs when a filmmaker presents a broader political or historical perspective through their lens, acting as a personal guide and including their emotions. Performance documentaries focus on capturing live events like music, dance, theater, or sports, aiming to provide viewers with an immersive experience. They showcase performers' talent, dedication, and creative work behind the scenes, offering insight into a range of artistic expressions.

The performative mode of documentary differs greatly from the observational mode. In observational documentaries, the director aims to observe the subject unobtrusively. A performative documentary emphasizes the filmmaker’s personal connection to the topic. Instead of following an expository approach, the performative filmmaker serves as a personal guide, showing and narrating the story with raw emotion. In performative mode, the filmmaker provides a “what’s it like to be there” perspective of a world, culture, or historical event.

An example of this mode is the powerful documentary “Paris is Burning” by Jenny Livingston. The film details New York’s drag scene in the 1980s and what it was like to be a gay, transgender minority during that era.

Examples of the Performative Style

• In her film “The Gleaners and I,” Agnes Varda draws a parallel between the way French “gleaners” (those who collect leftover produce from farms after the harvest) gather what they need and her own creative process of collecting ideas and footage for the documentary.
• “Tongues Untied” (1989) The late African-American filmmaker Marlon Riggs blends actuality, re-enactments, and his personal account to highlight black gay American identity.
• "Woodstock" (1970), directed by Michael Wadleigh, is an iconic documentary that captures the legendary Woodstock Music and Art Festival of 1969. It features performances by Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, The Who, and many others, offering an intimate look at the counterculture music scene of that era.
• "Stop Making Sense" (1984), directed by Jonathan Demme, is a documentary that captures the live performances of the Talking Heads during their 1983 tour. The film is known for its innovative cinematography and showcases the band's unique stage presence.
• "Jiro Dreams of Sushi" (2011) While not a traditional performance documentary, this film by David Gelb follows Jiro Ono, an 85-year-old sushi master in Tokyo. It documents his relentless pursuit of sushi perfection and can be seen as a performance of culinary artistry.
• "Madonna: Truth or Dare" (1991), directed by Alek Keshishian, is a documentary that follows Madonna during her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour. It offers a behind-the-scenes view of the pop icon's life on tour, including her live performances and interactions with her dancers and crew.
• "Pina" (2011), directed by Wim Wenders, is a tribute to the renowned German choreographer Pina Bausch. The film showcases her groundbreaking dance performances and examines the influence of her work on modern dance.
• "Rize" (2005), directed by David LaChapelle, examines the subculture of krumping (and expressive street dance characterized by fast, exaggerated, and aggressive-looking movements) and clowning in Los Angeles. It highlights the raw and energetic street dance performances by urban dancers.

Nichols’ modes aren’t exclusive — many documentaries hybridize these approaches, especially in contemporary practice.