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2: Solid-state Device Theory

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    • 2.1: Introduction to Solid-state Device Theory
      This chapter will cover the physics behind the operation of semiconductor devices and show how these principles are applied in several different types of semiconductor devices. Subsequent chapters will deal primarily with the practical aspects of these devices in circuits and omit theory as much as possible.
    • 2.2: Quantum Physics
    • 2.3: Valence and Crystal Structure
      Valence: The electrons in the outer most shell, or valence shell, are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons are responsible for the chemical properties of the chemical elements. It is these electrons which participate in chemical reactions with other elements. An over simplified chemistry rule applicable to simple reactions is that atoms try to form a complete outer shell of 8 electrons (two for the L shell). Atoms may give away a few electrons to expose an underlying complete shel
    • 2.4: Band Theory of Solids
      Quantum physics describes the states of electrons in an atom according to the four-fold scheme of quantum numbers. The quantum numbers describe the allowable states electrons may assume in an atom. To use the analogy of an amphitheater, quantum numbers describe how many rows and seats are available. Individual electrons may be described by the combination of quantum numbers, like a spectator in an amphitheater assigned to a particular row and seat.
    • 2.5: Electrons and “holes’’
      Pure semiconductors are relatively good insulators as compared with metals, though not nearly as good as a true insulator like glass. To be useful in semiconductor applications, the intrinsic semiconductor (pure undoped semiconductor) must have no more than one impurity atom in 10 billion semiconductor atoms. This is analogous to a grain of salt impurity in a railroad boxcar of sugar. Impure, or dirty semiconductors are considerably more conductive, though not as good as metals. Why might this b
    • 2.6: The P-N Junction
      If a block of P-type semiconductor is placed in contact with a block of N-type semiconductor in Figure below(a), the result is of no value. We have two conductive blocks in contact with each other, showing no unique properties. The problem is two separate and distinct crystal bodies. The number of electrons is balanced by the number of protons in both blocks. Thus, neither block has any net charge.
    • 2.7: Junction Diodes
      There were some historic crude, but usable were some historic crude, but usable semiconductor rectifiers before high purity materials were available. Ferdinand Braun invented a lead sulfide, PbS, based point contact rectifier in 1874. Cuprous oxide rectifiers were used as power rectifiers in 1924. The forward voltage drop is 0.2 V. The linear characteristic curve perhaps is why Cu2O was used as a rectifier for the AC scale on D’Arsonval based multimeters. This diode is also photosensitive.
    • 2.8: Bipolar Junction Transistors
      The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was named because its operation involves conduction by two carriers: electrons and holes in the same crystal. The first bipolar transistor was invented at Bell Labs by William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen so late in 1947 that it was not published until 1948. Thus, many texts differ as to the date of invention. Brattain fabricated a germanium point contact transistor, bearing some resemblance to a point contact diode. Within a month, Shockley h
    • 2.9: Junction Field-effect Transistors
      The field effect transistor was proposed by Julius Lilienfeld in US patents in 1926 and 1933 (1,900,018). Moreover, Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen were investigating the field effect transistor in 1947. Though, the extreme difficulties sidetracked them into inventing the bipolar transistor instead. Shockley’s field effect transistor theory was published in 1952. However, the materials processing technology was not mature enough until 1960 when John Atalla produced a working device.
    • 2.10: Insulated-gate Field-effect Transistors (MOSFET)
      The insulated-gate field-effect transistor (IGFET), also known as the metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET), is a derivative of the field effect transistor (FET). Today, most transistors are of the MOSFET type as components of digital integrated circuits. Though discrete BJT’s are more numerous than discrete MOSFET’s. The MOSFET transistor count within an integrated circuit may approach hundreds of a million. The dimensions of individual MOSFET devices are under a micron, decreasing every
    • 2.12: Semiconductor Manufacturing Techniques
      The manufacture of only silicon based semiconductors is described in this section; most semiconductors are silicon. Silicon is particularly suitable for integrated circuits because it readily forms an oxide coating, useful in patterning integrated components like transistors.
    • 2.13: Superconducting Devices
      Superconducting devices, though not widely used, have some unique characteristics not available in standard semiconductor devices. High sensitivity with respect to amplification of electrical signals, detection of magnetic fields, and detection of light are prized applications. High-speed switching is also possible, though not applied to computers at this time. Conventional superconducting devices must be cooled to within a few degrees of 0 Kelvin (-273 o C). Though, work is proceeding at this t
    • 2.15: Semiconductor Devices in SPICE
      The SPICE (simulation program, integrated circuit emphesis) electronic simulation program provides circuit elements and models for semiconductors. The SPICE element names begin with d, q, j, or m correspond to diode, BJT, JFET and MOSFET elements, respectively. These elements are accompanied by corresponding “models” These models have extensive lists of parameters describing the device. Though, we do not list them here. In this section we provide a very brief listing of simple spice models for s


    This page titled 2: Solid-state Device Theory is shared under a GNU Free Documentation License 1.3 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Tony R. Kuphaldt (All About Circuits) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform.