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The Great Wall of China

What is fascinating regarding the Great Wall of China is of course the ‘why’ of its creation and that today it is an ancient and great wonder of the world. The wall, believed to be more than 12,000 miles in length, was constructed by laborers forced and free during the reigns of various Chinese dynasties over a period of about 2344 years. The Great Wall is in fact hundreds of sections of walls, fortresses, fortifications, for defense and for protecting acquired territories. The walls were most often built by those who were both laborers and warriors.

Interesting data to consider: As many as 1.8 million men were laboring on the walls during dynastic periods of the Northern Qi and the Northern Zhou (550-580 BC). As many as 500,000 people died building the wall during the Sui dynasty (581-618 BC). The walls were constructed of rammed earth (taipa in Portuguese), stone, rock, and in more modern times brick, masonry, concrete and tile. Construction and refurbishment of some sections of the wall continues today with the Ming Dynasty being the last great medieval dynasty to fortify sections of the wall.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

The Great Pyramid of Giza is believed to have been built in the 26th century BCE and took approximately 30 years to complete. Archaeologists have surmised that the most reasonable explanation for the undertaking was religious in nature as the great Kings and Queens of Egypt along with their treasures were entombed within the structure. The dimensions of the pyramid are believed to have once measured 280 cubits (146.7 m; 481.4 ft) high, a base length of 440 cubits (230.6 m; 756.4 ft) square, and with a slope of 51°50'40 is now about 90% of its original size.

Interesting data to consider: It is believed that about an average of 13000 people with peaks at about 40000 people completed the construction of the pyramids over a 30 year span. The tools used consisted of hardened arsenic copper chisels, wooden mallets, ropes and stone tools. The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks. Approximately 5.5 million tons of limestone, 8,000 tons of granite, and 500,000 tons of mortar were used in the construction. Workers excavated the blocks of stone from quarries and researchers estimate that about 3,500 quarry-men could have produced the 250 blocks/day needed to complete the Great Pyramid in 27 years.

The Panama Canal

Considered to be one of the seven wonders of the modern world, the Panama Canal is esteemed to be one of the most difficult engineering undertakings ever completed. The canal is an artificial 82 km (51 mi) waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. It cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is essential for maritime trade. Completed in 1914 the canal took more than ten years to construct. It was originally started by the French in 1881 which ceased working on the project due to high worker mortality. The US completed the project two years ahead of schedule after taking over from the French in 1904.

Interesting data to consider: Annual ship traffic in 1914 (sic) was at 1000 per year and by 2008 that number had increased to about 15000. More than 200,000,000 cu yd of material was excavated to create the channel locks used to lift ships into a manmade lake and then back down again to sea level. Newly designed equipment such as steam shovels and enormous steam-powered cranes, giant hydraulic rock crushers, concrete mixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills, nearly all of which were manufactured by new, extensive machine-building technology developed and built in the United States. As many as 20000 people died from disease and accidents during the French phase of the project and 5600 died during the US phase.

Hoover Dam

Hoover Dam was constructed in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River with some sections divided between the state of Nevada and Arizona. A primary source for hydroelectric power supplying regions of Arizona, California, and Nevada, the dam originally named Boulder was completed in 1935. The dam impounds Lake Mead which is the largest reservoir in the US. Lake Mead is not only a source for hydroelectric power but is also a major water source for consumption and irrigation. The Dam is a major tourist attraction with over one million visitors a year.

Interesting data to consider: Hoover Dam was one of the first major public works projects of the Roosevelt Administration and considered to be one of the biggest work programs of the era. As many as 5200 were employed while over 20,000 unemployed descended on the project at its inception. Chinese American workers were prevented from working on the project and fewer than 30 African American were employed at any given time. A total of 112 deaths were recorded with about 40 additional deaths attributed to pneumonia. Workers who scaled the sides of the mountains called High Scalers removed rock with jackhammers and dynamite. The workers often would get hit with falling rock and created makeshift head coverings made from cloth and hardened tar. This protective gear would later become the model for hard hats in use today. 3,250,000 cu yds of concrete was used in the dam construction.

Interstate Highway System

The US Interstate Highway System funded by the Dwight D Eisenhower Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 was another large public works project benefiting the US populace. Construction beginning in the mid 1950s and ending in 1992 proved to be one of the longest running construction projects on record. While some existing roads were grafted into the interstate system most of the construction was new and created what we now know as ‘freeways’. The total cost of the highway system was billed at 114 billion (530 billion 2019 dollars).

Interesting data to consider: Some interstate routes slated for construction in urban cores were abandoned due to community opposition. These ‘freeway’ revolts were centered on environmental justice issues. Communities that were not successful in avoiding the freeway systems often complain today of freeway pollution and higher incidences of childhood respiratory illnesses. Return on investment was $6 for every $1 spent on constructing the freeway system. Increase in US economic growth and prosperity is directly attributed to expansion of the federal highway system. Jobs created to build a cross country freeway system expanded access to jobs.

Not all work is confined to engineering, building, or constructing. This course in workplace safety addresses all work activity. In the following sections we will look at the history of work in the US through a social, economic and environmental justice lens and touch on how justice issues are at the heart of workplace safety standards promulgated for every working condition.