2.3: Beverages

Water, coffee and tea are the staples of most beverage menus. Despite their relatively low price, bottled water or, a good cup of coffee or tea can be extremely important to a customer's impression of a food service operation.

A cup of coffee is often either the very first or the very last item consumed by a customer. Tea, whether iced or hot, is often consumed throughout the meal. Consequently, it is important to learn to prepare and serve these beverages properly. Many varieties of water are now available and some customers prefer these specialty waters to that from the tap. Not only do these beverages complement a meal, they are important profit centers for restaurant owners. Appreciation of the proper preparation and service of these beverages is an important part of a culinary student's training.

Water

At one time in the United States a glass of iced water was more than likely the first thing placed in front of the customer as the menu was presented. The origin of this practice is lost to time; perhaps it was thought that sipping water would ease the waiting time until the food was served. There were also those who believed that water aided digestion. Whatever the reasons, water service has evolved as the preference for bottled water has grown. In other countries, because of suspect local water supplies, if a customer orders water it is usually bottled.

Bottled water is the fastest -growing segment of the beverage industry, in part because of increased health consciousness, in part because of a perception that bottled water is safer. Waters are available from all over the globe, from Australia, France, Fiji, Germany, Italy, Wales and many points between. The list is endless and always growing. All waters imported into the United States are subject to federal regulation.

Types of Water

Bottled water is by definition potable water sold for human consumption and it is subject to FDA regulations. Bottled water comes from a variety of sources such as a municipal water supply, natural spring or well. Spring water originate from an underground source that flows naturally to the earth's surface. Mineral water can come from a spring, a well, or an artesian bore but by definition must contain not less than 250 parts per million total dissolved solids. This level of trace minerals distinguishes such water and frequently contributes to its unique taste.

Bottled water is sold as either still or sparkling, but within these two broad definitions are varieties of subgroups. Many brands offer either a still or sparkling version of their water. The "sparkle" is often achieved by the addition of carbon dioxide, which not only gives the beverage its ‘carbonated’ taste but also prevents spoilage.The more carbonation, the more acidic the taste. Bottled waters are best served lightly chilled and without ice, unless it is requested.

Various types of water

• fluoridated water - water, either naturally fluoridated or treated with a fluorine-containing compound, intended to promote healthy teeth by preventing tooth decay
• hard water - water with relatively high calcium and magnesium concentrations
• mineral water - drinking water that comes from a protected underground water source and contains at least 250 parts per million of total dissolved solids such as calcium
• natural water - bottled drinking water not derived from a municipal water supply; it can be mineral, spring, well or artesian-well water
• purified water - bottled water produced by distillation, reverse osmosis, deionization or suitable processes that meet governmental standards
• seltzer water - a flavorless natural mineral water with carbonation, originally from the German town of Niederselters
• soda water - a flavorless water with induced carbonation, consumed plain or used as a mixer for alcoholic drinks or soda fountain confections; also known as club soda and seltzer
• soft water - water with a relatively high sodium concentration
• spring water - water obtained from an underground source that flows naturally to the earth's surface

Coffee

History of Coffee

Some anthropologists suggest that coffee was initially consumed by central African warriors in the form of a paste made from mashed coffee beans and animal fat rolled into balls. Eaten before battle, the animal fat and bean protein provided nourishment; the caffeine provided a stimulant.

A hot coffee drink may first have been consumed sometime during the ninth century A.D. in Persia. Made by a decoction of ripe beans, the drink was probably very thick and acrid. Nevertheless, by the year 1000, the elite of the Arab world were regularly drinking a decoction of dried coffee beans. The beans were harvested in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and brought to market by Egyptian merchants. Within a century or so, kahwa became immensely popular with members of all strata of Arab society. Coffeehouses opened throughout the Levant, catering to customers who sipped the thick, brown brew while discussing affairs of heart and state.

Although European travelers to the Ottoman Empire had tasted coffee, and a few Arab or Turkish merchants living in Marseilles offered their guests a chance to sample the rare drink, coffee did not become popular in Europe until the 17th century. Its popularity is due in great part to Suleiman Aga, the Grand Panjandrum of the Ottoman Empire. In 1669, he arrived at the court of King Louis XIV of France as ambassador, bringing with him many exotic treasures, including coffee. Offered at his opulent parties, coffee soon became the drink of choice for the French aristocracy.

Coffee became popular in Vienna as a fortune of war. By 1683, the Turks were at the gates of Vienna. A decisive battle was fought, and the Turks fled, leaving behind stores of gold, equipment, supplies and a barely known provision green coffee beans. One of the victorious leaders, Franz George Kolschitzky, recognized the treasure, took it as his own and soon opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna, The Blue Bottle.

Despite its growing popularity, coffee was exorbitantly expensive, in part the result of the sultan's monopoly on coffee beans. His agents, principally in Marseilles, controlled the sale of beans. However, the monopoly was not to survive. By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had stolen coffee plants from Arabia and had begun cultivating them in Java. By the early 18th century, the French had transported seedlings to the West Indies; from there coffee plantations spread throughout the New World.

Coffee begins as the fruit of a small tree grown in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The fruit, referred to as a cherry, is bright red with translucent flesh surrounding two flat-sided seeds. These seeds are the coffee beans. When ripe, the cherries are harvested by hand, then cleaned, fermented and hulled, leaving the green coffee beans. The beans are then roasted, blended, ground and brewed. Note that any coffee bean can be roasted to any degree of darkness; ground to any degree of fineness; and brewed by any number of methods.

Only two species of coffee bean are routinely used: Arabica and Robusta. Arabica beans are the most important commercially and the ones from which the finest coffees are produced. Robusta beans do not produce as flavorful a drink as Arabica. Nevertheless, Robusta beans are becoming increasingly significant commercially, in part because Robusta trees are heartier and more fertile than Arabica trees. The conditions in which the beans are grown have almost as much effect on the final product as subsequent roasting, grinding and brewing. Because coffee takes much of its flavor and character from the soil, sunlight and air, the beans ' origin is critical to the product's final quality.

Each valley and mountain produces coffee distinct from all others, so geographic names are used to identify the beans whether they are from Arabica or Robusta trees. Thus, purveyors may offer beans known as Colombian, Chanchamayo (from Peru), Kilimanjaro (from Tanzania), Blue Mountain (from Jamaica), Java and Sumatra (from Indonesia) or Kona (from Hawaii), to name a few. Although many so-called gourmet coffees are made from a single type of bean, nearly all coffee sold in the United States is a blend of various qualities and types of bean.

Roasting Coffee

Roasting releases and enhances the flavors in coffee. It also darkens the beans and brings natural oils to the surface. Traditionally, almost everyone roasted their own coffee beans because all coffee beans were sold green. Today, however, roasting is left to experts who possess the necessary equipment. It is important to recognize and understand some of the standard descriptions used for various types of roasting. No single international organization controls the naming of roasted coffee, however, so a coffee roaster may refer to products by any name. In general, roasts fall into four categories based on their color-light, medium, medium-dark or dark. The following descriptions are based on the most common terminology:

• City roast: Also called American or brown roast, city roast is the most widely used coffee style in this country. City roast, which is medium brown in color, produces a beverage that may lack brilliance or be a bit flat, yet, it is the roast most Americans assume they prefer because it is the roast most often used in grocery store blends.
• Brazilian: Somewhat darker than a city roast, Brazilian roast should begin to show a hint of dark-roast flavor. The beans should show a trace of oil. In this context, the word Brazilian has no relationship to coffee grown in Brazil.
• Viennese: Also called medium-dark roast, Viennese roast generally falls somewhere between a standard city roast and French roast.
• French roast: French roast, also called New Orleans or dark roast, approaches espresso in flavor without sacrificing smoothness. The beans should be the color of semisweet chocolate, with apparent oiliness on the surface.
• Espresso roast: Espresso roast, also called Italian roast, is the darkest of all. The beans are roasted until they are virtually burnt. The beans should be black with a shiny, oily surface.

Grinding Coffee

Unlike roasting, which is best when left to the experts, the grinding of coffee beans produces the best results when left to the consumer or food service operation. Whole coffee beans stay fresh longer than ground coffee. Ground coffee kept in an airtight container away from heat and light will stay fresh for three or four days. Whole beans will stay fresh for a few weeks and may be kept frozen for several months, as long as they are dry and protected from other flavors. Frozen coffee beans do not need to be thawed before grinding and brewing. Do not refrigerate coffee.

The fineness of the grind depends entirely on the type of coffee maker being used. The grind determines the length of time it takes to achieve the optimum (19%) extraction from the beans. The proper grind is simply whatever grind allows this to happen in the time it takes a specific coffee maker to complete its brewing cycle. Generally, the finer the grind, the more quickly the coffee should be prepared. Follow the directions for your coffeemaker or ask your specialty coffee purveyor for guidance.

Brewing Coffee

Coffee is brewed using one of two methods: decoction or infusion. Decoction means boiling a substance until its flavor is removed. Boiling is the oldest method of making coffee, but is no longer used except in preparing extremely strong Turkish coffee. Infusion refers to the extraction of flavors at temperatures below boiling. Infusion techniques include steeping (mixing hot water with ground coffee), filtering (slowly pouring hot water over ground coffee held in a disposable cloth or paper filter) and dripping (pouring hot water over ground coffee and allowing the liquid to run through a strainer). Percolating is undesirable, as the continuous boiling ruins the coffee's flavor.

The secrets to brewing a good cup of coffee include knowing the exact proportion of coffee to water, as well as the length of time to maintain contact between the two. This varies depending on the type of coffee brewing equipment in use.

Drip Brewing

Drip coffee is commonly made from a machine that operates on the principle of gravity and a filter. Water is placed in a reservoir, heated by an element, and released slowly over the coffee grounds. For drip coffee, the best results are nearly always achieved by using 2-level tablespoons of ground coffee per 3/4-cup (6 fluid ounces) water. (A standard cup of coffee is three -fourths the size of a standard measuring cup; one pound of coffee yields approximately 80 level tablespoons or enough for 40 "cups" of coffee.) An Approved Coffee Measure (ACM) was developed by the Coffee Brewing Institute to measure 2-level tablespoons accurately. ACM scoops are readily available and are often included with retail coffee packages.

Premeasured packages of ground coffee are generally used with commercial brewing equipment. These packages are available in a range of sizes for making single pots or large urns of coffee. If stronger coffee is desired, use more coffee per cup of water, not a longer brewing time. For weaker coffee, prepare regular strength coffee and dilute it with hot water. Never reuse coffee grounds.

Espresso Brewing

Espresso is made with a pump-driven machine that forces hot water through compressed, finely ground coffee. Finely ground coffee to be used in espresso coffee machines is sold in bulk or in premeasured packets, or pods, that enable a consistent level of quality. Espresso measures usually come with a 1-ounce scoop on one side and a 2-ounce scoop on the other. A single serving of espresso uses about 1/4 ounce (7 grams) coffee to 1½ fluid ounces (45 milliliters) water. Americans tend to prefer a larger portion, known as espresso lungo, made with 2 to 3 fluid ounces (60 to 90 milliliters) water. It is important that the espresso be made quickly: If the machine pumps water through the coffee for too long, too much water will be added to the cup and the intense espresso flavor will be ruined. Because the single or double "shot" of espresso forms the foundation of so many beverages, this is an important consideration.

Conditions That Affect the Quality of Brewed Coffee

Most coffees are affected by the quality of the water used to brew them. Many commercial establishments have their machines tied into their water supply, so water quality may be beyond the maker's control. Unless equipment is properly cleaned after use, oils from coffee form an invisible film on the inside of the maker and pots, imparting a rancid or stale flavor to each subsequent batch. Coffeepots and carafes should be cleaned well with hot water between each use; coffee makers should be disassembled and cleaned according to the manufacturer's directions. Calcification on heating elements can also reduce their effectiveness.

Finally, all coffee should be served as soon as it is brewed. Oxidation takes a toll on the aroma and flavor, which soon becomes flat and eventually bitter. Drip coffee may be held for a short time on the coffee maker's hot plate at temperatures of 185°F to 190°F (85°C to 88°C). A better holding method, however, is to immediately pour freshly brewed coffee into a thermal carafe. Never attempt to reheat cold coffee, as drastic temperature shifts destroy flavor.

Tasting Coffee

Coffee is evaluated on four characteristics: aroma, acidity, body and flavor. As a rule, coffee will taste the way it smells. Some coffees, particularly Colombian, are more fragrant than others are, however. Acidity refers to the tartness of the coffee. Acidity is a desirable characteristic that indicates snap, life or thinness. Kenyan and Guatemalan are examples of particularly acidic coffees. Body refers to the feeling of heaviness or thickness that coffee provides on the palate. Sumatran is generally the heaviest, with Mexican and Venezuelan being the lightest. Flavor, of course, is the most ambiguous as well as the most important subjective characteristic.

Serving Coffee

Coffee beverages can be made with specific additions and provide value-added menu alternatives. The most common ways of serving coffee are:

Drip Coffee or Filtered Coffee

Drip or filter coffee is the most common style of coffee served in the United States. It is served unadorned, unsweetened and black (without milk or cream). The customer then adds the desired amount of sweetener and/or milk.

• Black: A plain cup of unsweetened coffee with no milk or cream added.
• Cafe au lait: The French version of the Italian caffe latte, cafe au lait (or cafe crème) is made with strong coffee instead of espresso and hot, not steamed, milk. It is traditionally served in a handle-less bowl.
• Demitasse: A small cup of strong black coffee or espresso; also refers to the small cup in which it is served.
• Iced coffee: Strong coffee served over ice. If desired, it is best to add sweetener before the coffee is poured over ice or shaken. Iced coffee can also be served with milk or cream. In Australia, a dollop of vanilla ice cream is often added. In Vietnam, it is made with a small Vietnamese filter pot using condensed milk as a sweetener. Under no circumstances should leftover coffee be used to make iced coffee.
• After-dinner coffee: Strong coffee with the addition of liquor, liqueurs, or spices, and often sweetened and garnished with whipped cream; examples include Irish coffee, made with Irish whisky, or cafe brullot, made with orange, cloves and brandy.

Espresso

Espresso refers to a unique brewing method in which hot water is forced through finely ground and packed coffee under high pressure. Properly made espresso is strong, rich and smooth, not bitter or acidic. As the coffee drains into the cup it will be golden brown, forming a crema or foam that lies on top of the black coffee underneath. It is important that the small espresso cups be pre-warmed. In Europe, an espresso is often served with a twist of lemon on the saucer and a small glass of water on the side.

Types of Espresso Coffee

• Espresso: A single (shot) or double serving, black served in a demitasse.
• Espresso machiatto: Espresso "marked" with a tiny portion of steamed milk.
• Cappuccino: One -third espresso, one-third steamed milk and one -third foamed milk; the total serving is still rather small, about 4 to 6 ounces (120 to 180 milliliters).
• Caffe latte: One -third espresso and two-thirds steamed milk without foam; usually served in a tall glass.
• Caffe mocha: One-third espresso and two-thirds steamed milk flavored with chocolate syrup; usually topped with whipped cream and chocolate shavings or cocoa.
• Caffe freddo: A double serving of sweetened espresso served chilled with ice or shaken with crushed ice. Can be served with milk or whipped cream, usually in a tall glass.
• Espresso con panna: Espresso with a dollop of whipped cream.
• Espresso corretto: A shot of espresso "corrected" with the addition of liquor such as brandy or liqueur.
• Espresso ristretto: Espresso made with half the water normally used for a regular espresso.

Terms

Barista - Italian for "bartender"; now used to describe someone who has been professionally trained in the art of preparing espresso and espresso-based beverages

Steamed milk - milk that is heated with steam generated by an espresso machine; it should be approximately 150°F to 170°F (66°C to 77°C)

Foamed milk - milk that is heated and frothed with air and steam generated by an espresso machine; it will be slightly cooler than steamed milk.

Any type of milk can be used to make cappuccino, latte and other espresso beverages. Milk with higher fat content will produce a creamier tasting beverage. To froth the milk for these beverages, pour the milk into a jug, and then position it under the steam spout of the espresso machine. Activate the steam control only when the head of the spout is under the surface of the milk. Moving the jug around while keeping the spout under the surface of the milk helps the steam aerate the milk, giving it a consistency resembling frothed cream.

Flavored Coffee

Dried and ground chicory root has long been added to coffee. The French, in particular, enjoy its bitter flavor. Toasted barley, dried figs and spices have also been used by various cultures for years. Coffee s flavored with vanilla, chocolate, liquors, spices and nuts have recently become popular in the United States. These flavors are added to roasted coffee beans by tumbling the beans with special flavoring oils. The results are strongly aromatic flavors such as vanilla, hazelnut, chocolate raspberry or maple walnut.

Decaffeinated Coffee

Caffeine is an alkaloid found in coffee beans (as well as in tea leave s and cocoa beans). It is a stimulant that can improve alertness or reduce fatigue. In excess, however, caffeine can cause some people to suffer palpitations or insomnia. Regular filtered coffee contains 85 to 100 milligrams of caffeine per cup. Robusta beans contain more caffeine than the better-quality Arabica beans. Decaffeinated coffee (with 97 percent or more of the caffeine removed) is designed to meet consumer desires for a caffeine-free product.

Coffee - Other Uses

In addition to its use as a beverage, coffee is also used in stews, sauces and pan gravy. It may be added to breads (such as rye and pumpernickel), cakes, custards, ice creams, dessert sauces and frostings. The flavor of coffee has a strong affinity for chocolate, nuts and rum.

Tea, Tisanes, and Related Beverages

Tea and tisanes are made from dried leaves, herbs, spices, flowers or fruits that are prepared by infusion, which is, steeping in fresh boiling water. Tea is the beverage of choice for more than half the world's population and may be served hot or cold. Eighty-five percent of the tea consumed in the United States is iced, a uniquely American preference. Tisanes, or herbal infusions, have long been popular for their perceived health benefits and healing properties in Europe and Asia. As customers in the United States have become familiar with herbal teas, demand for them is growing.

Tea

Tea is the name given to the leaves of Camellia sinensis, a tree or shrub that grows at high altitudes in damp tropical regions. Although tea comes from only one species of plant, there are three general types of tea- black, green and oolong. The differences among the three are the result of the manner in which the leaves are treated after picking.

Tea Varieties

Black tea is amber-brown and strongly flavored. Its color and flavor result from fermenting the leaves. Black tea leaves are named, or graded, by the size of the leaf.

Because larger leaves brew more slowly than smaller ones, teas are sorted by leaf size for efficient brewing. Souchong denotes large leave s, pekoe denotes medium-sized leaves and orange pekoe denotes the smallest whole leaves. (Note that orange pekoe does not refer to any type of orange flavor.) Broken tea , graded as either broken orange pekoe or broken pekoe, is smaller, resulting in a darker, stronger brew. Broken tea is most often used in tea bags. These grades apply to both Chinese and Indian black teas.

Green tea is yellowish -green in color with a bitter flavor. Leaves used for green tea are not fermented. Chinese green tea leaves are also graded according to leaf size and age. The finest green tea is Gunpowder, followed by Imperial and Hyson.

Oolong tea is partially fermented to combine the characteristics of black and green teas. Oolong is popular in China and Japan, often flavored with jasmine flowers. Oolong tealeaves are also graded by size and age. As with coffee, tea takes much of its flavor from the geographic conditions in which it is grown. Teas are named for their place of origin- for example, Darjeeling, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) or Assam.

Many popular and commercially available teas are actually blends of leaves from various sources. Blended and unblended teas may also be flavored with oils, dried fruit, spices, flowers or herbs; they are then referred to as flavored teas. Spices such as allspice, cinnamon, nutmeg and black pepper are often used to create teas flavored for cold-weather drinking. Bright herbs such as mint and citrus rind or oil, especially bergamot, which gives Earl Grey tea its flavor, add complexity to brewed teas and are popular additions.

Tea Flavors

Tea can be described according to three key characteristics: astringency or briskness, body and aroma. Astringency is not bitterness, which is undesirable, but a sharp, dry feeling on the tongue that contributes to the refreshing taste of a tea. Body refers to the feeling of thickness on the tongue. Teas range from light to full-bodied. Aronia is the smell and flavors of the tea when brewed.

Black Teas

• Assam - A rich black tea from northeastern India with a reddish color. It is valued by connoisseurs, especially for breakfast.
• Ceylon - A full-flavored black tea with a golden color and delicate fragrance. Ideal for serving iced, it does not become cloudy when cold. Darjeeling the champagne of teas, grown in the foothills of the Himalayas in northeastern India. It is a full-bodied, black tea with a Muscat flavor.
• Earl Grey - blend of black teas, usually including Darjeeling, flavored with oil of bergamot. A popular choice for afternoon tea.
• English Breakfast - An English blend of Indian and Sri Lankan black teas; it is full-bodied and robust, with a rich color.
• Keemum - A mellow black Chinese tea with a strong aroma. It is less astringent than other teas and is delicious iced.
• Lapsang Souchong - A large-leafed (souchong) tea from the Lapsang district of China. It has a distinctive tarry, smoky flavor and aroma, appropriate for afternoon tea or dinner.

Green Teas

• Gunpowder - A green Chinese tea with a tightly curled leaf and gray-green color. It has a pungent flavor and a light straw color. It is often served after the evening meal.
• Sencha (common) - A delicate Japanese green tea that has a light color with a pronounced aroma and a bright, grassy taste.
• White tea - A delicate green tea made from new buds picked before they open. Allowed to wither so that natural moisture evaporates, these leaves are lightly dried to a pale silvery color. White tea has a subtle flavor.

Oolong Teas

• Formosa Oolong - A unique and expensive large -leafed oolong tea with the flavor of ripe peaches. It is appropriate for breakfast or afternoon tea.

Variety of cups of brewed tea (from left): Chinese tea, Japanese tea, Moroccan mint tea and black tea with milk

Tisanes (Herb Teas)

Tisanes are herbal infusions that do not contain any "real" tea. They are commonly made from fresh or dried flowers, herbs, seeds or roots; chamomile, ginseng, linden flowers and lemon balm are among the more popular tisanes. In most countries, there is a tradition of indigenous herbal medicine often administered in an infused form, as a tea. In Europe, a tisane may be served after a meal to aid digestion or taken before bed as an aid to sleep. (Herbal teas usually contain no caffeine, so they do not act as stimulants.) In the United States, herbal teas are gaining in popularity, but not for the first time: During the American Revolution herbal teas became known as "Liberty teas." In a professional food service establishment, herbal teas are prepackaged blends and require no mixing.