7.1: Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is growing trend with more than six million in the United States choosing to forgo some or all animal products in their diets. A chef needs to understand that it is not necessarily enough to simply remove the meat from the center of the plate. Nor is it always sufficient to offer a plate composed of several starch and vegetable side dishes as if it were a balanced and inviting meal.

Variations on Vegetarianism

Although the term ‘vegetarian’ was not widely used until 1847, when England's Vegetarian Society first adopted it to describe people who excluded all animal products from their diets, millions of people have , for thousands of years , eaten little to no meat. Some have done so for religious or philosophical beliefs, others for environmental or health concerns. Still others have done so simply because they did not have regular access to meat.

One of the earliest known proponents of a vegetarian diet was the Greek mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras. He believed that there was a kinship among all living creatures and therefore chose not to eat the flesh of slaughtered anima ls. Over the next two centuries or so, his beliefs were refined and his followers eventually adopted an ethical code that included vows not to kill living creatures (including anima ls traditionally sacrificed to the gods) and not eat meat. His teachings and those of his followers have been widespread for centuries.

Other than for small groups of Pythagoreans and some devout, ascetic religious (especially monastic) communities and sects, vegetarianism as a diet of choice never really caught hold in Europe or North America until the 19th and 20th centuries. And even then, until the 1970s, vegetarianism was more often than not chosen as part of a puritanical or spiritual lifestyle devoted to moderation and abstinence from liquor, caffeine and other stimulants.

Today there are many variations on the vegetarian diet. Some vegetarian diets (and lifestyles) exclude the consumption and use of all animal products (and even some plant products), while others allow the adherent to consume some animal or animal-based products. A person who follows a vegetarian diet can be any of the following:

Vegan - A person who eats no meat, fish or poultry or any products derived from animals such as milk, cheese, eggs, honey or gelatin; also referred to as a strict or pure vegetarian.

Raw foodist - Typically, a vegan who eats only raw or slightly warmed plant products (adherents believe that cooking foods to a temperature of 116°F [47°C] or above destroys enzymes and nutrients). A person on a raw foods diet, also referred to as a living foodist, may soak certain foods such as nut s and sprouts to soften them and increase nutrient absorption.

Fructarian or fruitarian - A person who eats only fruits, nuts, seed s and other plant products that ca n be gathered without harming the plant(so meat only plant matte that has already fallen off the plant).

Ovo – vegetarian - A vegetarian who eats eggs but not dairy products.

Ovo – lacto-vegetarian or lacto-ovo-vegetarian - A person who eats plant products as well as dai1y products and eggs (although some may not eat cheeses made with animal-based enzymes such as rennet, or eggs produced by facto1y farms) This diet is one of the most typical of vegetarian diets and these terms are often used interchangeably with the term vegetarian.

Lacto-vegetarian - A vegetarian who eats dairy products but not eggs.

Demi-vegetarian - A vegetarian or ovo-lacto-vegetarian who eats fish.

Macrobioticist - A person who follows a diet devised in the 1920s by a Japanese teacher who adhered to a simple meal plan of brown rice, miso soup and sea vegetables (seaweed). Derived from an ancient style of eating common in Asia, this dieta1y philosophy is based on Chinese concepts of balancing the opposite forces called yin and yang. Brown rice, whole grains, and vegetables form the basis of the diet. Fruits, nuts, refined sugars and refined foods are avoided, although fish is occasionally eaten.

The Vegetarian Diet

Vegetarianism has become more mainstream over the last century, evolving from a diet followed mainly clue to religious or philosophical beliefs to people who now choose a plant-based diet for health reasons. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, as well as recommendations from the major health groups (American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, and American Dietetic Association), stress the importance of fruits, vegetables, legumes and whole grains the foundation of a plant-based diet. Studies have shown that the incidence of chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, cancer and Type 2 diabetes are lower for vegetarians than for non-vegetarians. It is important to note that other healthy lifestyle factors (not smoking, mode rate use or abstinence from alcohol, and exercise) that vegetarians typically follow might also be responsible for the lower disease rates. All of these factors together probably account for the decreased incidence of disease among vegetarians.

Many people who believe that a plant-based diet is associated with a reduced incidence of disease find it difficult to give up all animal foods. They adapt the principles of vegetarianism to their lifestyles by choosing a diet plan loosely based on vegetarianism - the "flexitarian" plan. Although it is not recognized as a conventional vegetarian diet, people who follow this eating pattern choose a plant-based diet augmented with lean fish and occasional servings of poultry.

Although plant-based diets offer many healthful qualities, careful planning is vital to ensure that the vegetarian is consuming adequate protein, minerals, vitamins and calories. The American Dietetic Association has determined that eating an assortment of plant foods over the course of a clay can provide all the essential amino acids required for good nutrition. However, the quality of plant protein and the ability of the body to absorb it may vary. Vegetarian protein needs can be met by consuming soy foods whose protein has been determined to be as effective a source as animal protein.

A vegetarian diet can meet calcium requirements when plant foods that are good sources of calcium such as greens and cruciferous vegetables are eaten. Vegetarians who elect to consume dairy and eggs do not need to be concerned with meeting adequate calcium intake requirements. Soy products that are fortified with calcium and other vitamins are also readily available. The type of iron found in plant foods may not be as readily absorbed as iron from animal sources; therefore, supplements are recommended.

There are no natural plant sources of Vitamin B12, which is crucial for good nutrition, especially for pregnant women and infants. Consumption of dietary supplements, fortified foods or dairy foods is necessary to provide an adequate amount of Vitamin B12 for vegetarians. Vegans have to be particularly mindful of their food choices, because they avoid all animal-based foods. Vegans usually supplement their diet with multivitamin mineral supplements and include fortified and enriched foods. Another area in which a vegetarian diet may be lacking are the fatty acids naturally occurring in fish such as salmon and mackerel. To compensate, dietitians advise that vegetarians consume a good quantity of linoleic acid in their diet. A diet rich in nuts, canola oil, flax and other seeds and soy products are recommended.

Vegetarians who consume dairy and/ or eggs generally have an easier time meeting their nutrient needs. All vegetarians must choose carefully to be certain to meet their calorie needs, however, if they are also attempting to eat a low-fat diet. High-fiber foods such as vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and fruits can reduce calorie intake because these foods tend to make people feel full sooner. Protein intake is not usually a concern for vegetarians who eat a variety of foods. Overall, a carefully planned plant-based diet is a healthy, satisfying way to eat.

Ingredients for Vegetarian Cooking

A diet rich in a variety of fruits, vegetables, starches and grains, well prepared and properly seasoned, will satisfy even those adhering to the more strict vegetarian diets. Chefs can prepare flavorful, visually stimulating dishes with a traditional range of ingredients available in most restaurant kitchens.

While the professional kitchen offers hundreds of foods appropriate for all vegetarian diets, chefs can use a number of ingredients to enhance the complexity of their vegetarian cooking. Some foods that replace the protein found in animal products are featured here, as well as other ingredients that may mimic more traditional animal-based foods.

Soybean-Based Ingredients

The versatile and protein-rich soybean forms the basis for a wide range of products use d in vegetarian and traditional ethnic cuisines worldwide. Soy-based foods have been favorites in Asian cooking for centuries. While there are brown, black and green varieties, most soybeans are yellow. Fresh green soybeans, called ‘eclamame’, are steamed and eaten as a snack. According to the United Soybean Board, soy protein is the only plant protein that is equivalent to animal protein; it is a rich source of phytochemicals, making soy an ideal ingredient for vegetarian cooking. Soy can be made into a diverse range of foods including flour, "milk," cheese and oil.

Soymilk is made from dried soybeans that are soaked and then finely ground and pressed to extract a milky liquid. (Soymilk can be made in any kitchen by soaking, then cooking dried soybeans in hot water before grinding, straining and simmering the liquid.) Soy milk is believe d to have originated in China, where it is traditionally served as a sweet or savory breakfast beverage or soup base with a distinct beany flavor. Soymilk comes in liquid or powdered form. Liquid soymilk resembles skin milk and has a slight nutty flavor. Most liquid soymilk is sold in aseptic packaging, giving it a one-year shelf life if unopened. Like other dairy products, once opened, liquid soymilk requires refrigeration and lasts from 5 to 7 days or according to recommendations of the manufacturer. Powdered soymilk is shelf-stable and lasts for a year at room temperature. Many dairy substitutes are made from soymilk, such as soy cheese, soy yogurt and flavored soy beverages.

Soymilk can be used measure-for-measure in all recipes that call for dairy milk. Manufacturing technologies have evolved to produce soymilk products with a richer texture and flavor, more suitable for enriching sauces. When cooking with soymilk, be aware that it can separate at high temperatures. Simmer foods with soymilk gently and acid the soymilk near the end of the cooking time to prevent it from separating.

Tofu, or bean curd is a staple of Japanese and Chinese cuisines and is gaining acceptance in American kitchens because of its high nutritional value, low cost and flavor adaptability. Tofu is made by processing soybeans into soymilk, which is then coagulated, or cultured and formed into a cake. The result is a soft, creamy-white sub stance similar to cheese. Tofu is easy to digest and is a good source of protein, low in fat and sodium with no cholesterol.

Tofu is an ancient foodstuff, probably created in China during the second century A.D. It was introduced to Japan by Buddhist priests during the eighth century and was "discovered" by Western travelers during the 17th century. Today, Japanese tofu is said to be the finest, perhaps because of the superiority of the soybeans grown in the Yamato region, near the city of Kyoto. Japanese cuisine values the natural flavor and texture of tofu and uses it in a tremendous variety of ways. Chinese cuisine uses it as an additive, not as a principal ingredient.

Tofu may be eaten fresh; added to soup, broth or noodle dishes; tossed in cold salads ; grilled , deep-fried or sautéed; or pureed to make a creamy spread. Its flavor is bland, but it readily absorbs flavors from other ingredients.

Two types of tofu are widely available: cotton (or traditional) and silken. Cotton tofu is the most common. The soymilk is coagulated (nowadays with calcium sulfate). The curds are then placed in a perforated mold lined with cloth and pressed with a weight to remove the liquid. Cotton tofu is solid, with an irregular surface caused by the weave of the cotton fabric in which it is wrapped for pressing this traditional tofu comes in three styles: soft, firm and extra firm, each style being progressively drier and firmer. Select the style of tofu suited to the preparation. Firmer tofu is solid enough to be grilled, or sautéed. It absorbs the favors of rubs and marinades. Softer tofu may be scrambled like eggs, or processed to form a smooth spread.

Silken tofu has a silky-smooth appearance and texture and a somewhat more delicate flavor than cotton tofu. Silken tofu is made in a process similar to the way yogurt is cultured. No curds are formed, nor is whey produced. This makes a tofu with a custard like texture suitable for processing into a creamy substance, good to use as a base for clips or in spreads or smoothies. Because the water has not been pressed out of silken tofu, it should not be cooked at high temperatures or for a long time, as it falls apart easily. Silken tofu can also be drained to make a thicker spread with a consistency similar to mascarpone or cream cheese.

Fresh tofu is usually packaged in water. It should be refrigerated and kept in water until used. If the water is drained and changed daily, the tofu should last for 1 week. Tofu can be frozen for several months, though its texture may be slightly altered after thawing. Weight down the firm tofu while it is thawing to create a denser, firmer product, suit able for grilling. Place a sheet pan on top of the tofu, then place a heavy object such as a #10 can on top of the sheet pan. Drain the liquid from the tofu before using.

Miso (MEE-so) is a thick paste made by salting and fermenting soybeans and rice or barley. After soaking, the soybeans are steamed, then crushed. The mixture is blended with water. Rice or barley is added along with salt before the mixture is inoculated with a living culture, koji or aspergillus mold. After fermenting and aging, often in large wooden barrels for as long as a year, the paste is ready to use. In Japan, where the manufacture of miso is a fine art akin to cheese making in France, there are countless styles of miso ranging in color from pale to rust and in taste from sweet to salty. In the United States, two types of miso are commonly available: sweet white miso (shiro miso) and dark or red miso. Creamy-colored white miso contains a high percentage of rice and has a mild, somewhat sweet flavor. Dark or red miso, which contains a higher percentage of soybeans, is aged longer and has a stronger, saltier flavor.

Miso can be used in cold and warm preparations but should never be boiled; it contains beneficial enzymes and bacteria that can be killed at high temperatures. A pungent seasoning, miso should be used judiciously so as not to overpower a dish. As little as 1-teaspoon (5 milliliters) per portion can be adequate to flavor a simple broth. With its high salt content, miso will keep indefinitely under refrigeration.

Tempeh is a type of bean cake made from fermented whole soybeans mixed with a grain such as rice or millet. The mixture is inoculated with rhizopus mold, which binds the grains into a firm cake . The traditional food of Indonesia, tempeh has a chewy consistency and a yeasty, nutty flavor. With its chunky texture, tempeh makes a pleasant meat substitute. It lends itself to being marinated for grilling or sautéing. When crumbled, tempeh can be added to soup soy stews to replace ground beef, poultry or pork. A firm cake, tempeh is easily sliced or cut into cubes. Because of the type of live culture used to make it, tempeh should be cooked prior to eating. Proper cooking also tempers its pronounced flavor. Tempeh is sold both fresh and frozen. It lasts for approximately 1 week in the refrigerator or several months when frozen.

Textured soy protein, also known as textured soy flour or TSP, a proprietary name, is a defatted soy protein that is dried and then compressed into granules or chunks or extruded into shapes. Food manufacturers use it as a mea t extender and in commercially produced meat replacements. Granulated texturized soy protein must be rehydrated before cooking which causes it to take on a texture similar to that of meat. Larger forms of texturized soy protein benefit from simmering after re hydration. Adding some vinegar or lemon juice to the simmering liquid helps speed rehydration. A shelf-stable city product, texturized soy protein can be stored for up to a year when tightly sealed at room temperature. Once it has been re hydrated, texturized soy protein must be refrigerated and should be used within a few days.

Other Popular Ingredients in Vegetarian Cooking

Seitan (SAY-tan), often referred to as "wheat meat", is a form of wheat gluten, the insoluble protein in wheat. A staple in the diets of Buddhist monks for centuries, seitan has a firm, chewy texture and a bland flavor. Seitan is made by preparing a dough from wheat gluten or wheat flour and water. The dough is repeatedly rinsed to remove any remaining starch or bran. The spongy pieces of seitan are then simmered in a broth of soy sauce or tamari with ginger, garlic and kombu (seaweed). Cooking tenderizes seitan and imbues it with the flavors of the cooking liquid. As it absorbs flavors, seitan can be flavored to mimic man y foods. Using seasonings associated with poultry such as thyme and sage brings out a more chicken-like flavor in the seitan, whereas using dark soy sauce and meaty mushrooms can give it a meat-like flavor. Seitan should be added to a dish near the end of cooking, as it is already fully cooked. Fully cooked fresh seitan is sold refrigerated in irregularly sized chunks. Once opened it should be consumed within a few days. Powdered seitan mix is also available.

Grain Beverages

Many grains and nuts can be used to produce beverages that can be used in place of stock or dairy products when making soups, sauces and custards. Almond, hazelnut, oat and rice milks are commercially available. These ingredients tend to be lower in fat but higher in carbohydrates than their counterparts and they are cholesterol-free.

Analogous Foods

Numerous products made from soy, wheat, grains, or other plant materials are designed to mimic the appearance and texture of popular animal-based products. These commercially prepared products offer a texture and appearance similar to that of their animal-protein-based counterparts. While their flavors are less successful in imitating the actual flavor of their fish, meat or poultry counterparts, many offer consumers the pleasure of eating familiar foods in traditional dishes.

Plant-based products are available in the form of "nuggets," "burgers," "sausage," "hot dogs," "ground meat," "bacon," "cold cuts" and even "pastrami." Soy protein extract and judicious use of appropriate seasonings, such as sage in a turkey-stuffing analogue, help mimic the flavor of their meat counterparts.

In most cases, these analogous food products may be prepared in the same way as their meat, poultry or fish counterparts. Steaming, sautéing, simmering, grilling and baking work well. Follow the manufacturer's directions, keeping in mind that these products are usually fully cooked, requiring only crisping and heating, and could suffer in overcooking.

Vegetarian Cuisine: Rebalancing the Center of the Plate

The principles of vegetarian cuisine are no different from those of the classic kitchen. When creating an appetizing and satisfying vegetarian dish, chefs use the same professional judgment as when preparing a roast or steak. Flavors must be in balance. Ingredients must be thoughtfully selected and skillfully pre pared. Only the ingredients themselves vary. Chefs need to understand the basic principles of cooking and work with the textures and flavors offered by plant-base d ingredients. Chefs also need to understand the unique role played by animal products in specific recipes they are considering adapting for a vegetarian diner. The muscle fibers in different cuts of meat, poultry and game yield foods with a chewy texture not easily mimicked by vegetable or soy analogues.

Well-marbled meat has fat throughout. When cooked, this fat melts, adding tenderness and flavor to the finished dish. It may be necessary to add fat to enhance flavor and acid moisture to dishes cooked without meats. Replacing animal protein in a main dish with an equal amount of tofu, texturized soy protein, grain, bean puree or plant food may not result in a dish with the same appearance and depth of flavor as the original made with meat. Chefs must carefully choose the ingredients they use. Vegetables should be chosen for their flavor and texture. The mouth feel each ingredient contributes to a finished dish should also be considered. Ripe avocados, for example, have a rich, creamy texture that can mimic the mouth feel of a soft cream cheese.

Baking without eggs poses a number of challenges because of the function eggs perform in many baked goods. Quick-bread formulas using chemical leavening may be better suited to adapting to vegetarian preparation than cream-style cakes. With these considerations in mind, here are some suggestions on how to plan and prepare to add vegetarian dishes to a restaurant menu.

Use or adapt items from the regular menu. Many items on existing me nus may be vegetarian or ca n easily be adapted for a vegetarian diner. Soups, salads, stir-fried vegetables and pasta dishes lend themselves to vegetarian ingredients.

Grains and beans add texture and satiation. Think about these versatile starches as the center-of-the-plate offerings when planning a vegetarian menu. Chewy grains such as cooked bulgur, barley and millet offer a good textural appeal that can be lacking in plant-based cuisine. Ensuring that a customer feels sufficiently full is another consideration, something that a plate of steamed vegetables might not offer.

Take advantage of meaty vegetables and soy products as main attractions in a vegetarian dish. Eggplant, mushrooms (especially portabellas), okra, sweet potatoes and parsnips have flavor and body that mimics that of meat. Pan-fried breaded eggplant slices or grilled whole portabella mushroom caps offer hearty vegetable alternatives to a slice of chicken or beef.

Compose dishes with an eye to balancing color. We eat with our eyes as well as our taste buds. When combining grains and bean s on a plate, consider using different colors, such as black beans and red rice or yellow lentils and black-eyed peas.

Balance textures on the same plate. Look for complementary and contrasting textures in a vegetarian plate. When serving a creamy puree, such as mashed sweet potatoes, for example, balance the texture with something crunchy or crisp such as fried zucchini or a risotto cake.

Layer flavors for complexity of taste. A dish prepared with few ingredients need not be bland or boring. Combine coo king method s in one dish to bring out a complex taste. Sun-dried tomatoes added to a fresh tomato sauce add a rich dimension of taste that might otherwise be lacking.

Create a vegetarian pantry stocked with ingredients that help enhance plant-based cooking. Without base flavor notes created from rich meat stocks, vegetarian dishes can lack depth of flavor. Varieties of fresh and dried mushrooms help enrich flavorful stocks, soups and stews. Dried seaweed such as kombu (sea kelp) adds a briny flavor mimicking seafood stock. Soy sauce and miso can give a vegetable broth a savory taste and appealing dark color, as can wine reductions. Richly flavored nut oils such as sesame oil, hazelnut oil and walnut oil can add complex tastes to dishes prepared without rich meat stocks or butter. Olives and dried fruit have intense flavors and pleasing textures that can add variety to a vegetarian dish. Toasted sesame and other seeds and nuts add bursts of flavor and a textural contrast to a dish.

Seek inspiration from ethnic cuisines in which vegetarian food is traditional. Asian, Indian, Mexican, Middle Eastern and South American cuisines offer many exciting vegetarian options.

Substitution Chart

Ingredient	Cooking Method	Substitution
Butter	Sautéing	Vegetable oil or vegetable oil spray	Additional oil or liquid may be needed; thin nut butters with oil, fruit juices or nut, rice or soy milks
	Flavoring	Nut oil: hazelnut, pecan or walnut; nut butter: almond, cashew, peanut or sesame butter
	Spreading	Ground nut spread: almond, Cashew, peanut or sesame butter; vegetable purees: bean, roasted eggplant, red pepper
	Baking	Dried fruit or cooked Quick breads, cookies and vegetable purees	Quick breads, cookies and general baking; may affect color, taste and texture
Cream	Hot soups, sauces	Soy or rice milk; pureed silken tofu	Add at last moment, heating gently to prevent separation
	Cold creams or spreads	Enriched soy milk	Oil may be needed to improve mouth feel
Sour cream, yogurt	Beverage or custard	Soy coffee creamer
	Cold creams or spreads	Pureed silken tofu
Eggs	Leavening	Chemical leavening	Consider loss of color from lack of egg yolk; texture will be denser than product containing eggs
	Emulsifier in sauces such as mayonnaise	Form a temporary emulsion; form emulsion using ground nuts or soaked bread
Beef, fish or poultry stock	Sauces, soups, stews	Vegetable stock; broth made from miso or seaweed
Demi-glace	Sauces, stews	Rich vegetable stock made with a larger proportion of vegetables, reduced and thickened with starch
Gelatin	Thickening, gelling	Agar	Gels more firmly than gelatin
Prepared sauces made with fish such as nuoc mam, oyster or Worcestershire	Flavoring	Soy sauce, balsamic or red wine vinegar