6: Actualities and scenics

Actuality Film

The earliest films were not classified as “documentary” or “narrative” as we broadly identify them today. Our documentary resembles past actuality films. Actuality films, as a genre, relate to still photography in that they strive to present a non-stylized reality. The recorded footage of actual events, places, and objects (similar to what we now call B-roll or coverage) was not structured into larger narratives or coherent wholes. Instead, this early cinema typically lasted no more than one or two minutes and was usually compiled into a program by an exhibitor. The distinction between narrative and non-fiction films was less pronounced in early cinema than it would later become once documentaries emerged as the predominant form of non-fiction filmmaking.

Moving pictures were invented near the end of the Industrial Revolution, driven by a growing labor force, an expanding middle class, population growth in large cities, and improvements in transportation systems. Working in factories rather than on farms provided people with more leisure time, making films a unique new pastime.

Actualities and travelogues grew in popularity, showcasing filmed glimpses of distant cultures and colonial territories that mirrored Western imperial interests and curiosity. While the technology of early hand-cranked cameras and portable equipment facilitated basic location filming, film stock remained slow and unwieldy. These short actuality films documented daily life, a byproduct of industrial society’s emerging fascination with mechanization, urbanization, and time discipline.

These early films featured single shots, with the camera fixed in position on a platform or tripod. The onscreen action often portrays everyday scenes, such as “La Sortie de l'Usine Lumière à Lyon (1895)” (Workers Leaving The Lumiere Factory). The interesting book by Bruce Bennett, “Cycling and Cinema" (2019), identifies the 1895 Lumière film as the first instance of a bicycle in a film (look at six seconds in). These films lacked editing and a clear storytelling structure, presenting only a stark, fly-on-the-wall perspective.

It is important to note, as Nichols does in his book "Engaging Cinema" (2010), that these films are not merely camera-positioned outside the action, but rather a specific arrangement and blocking of action that support the filmmakers' interpretation of an ordinary moment in time. As the workers leave their jobs, they walk in an orderly manner facing the camera, turning to the left and right. No one walks directly toward the camera, nor stops to talk with others, smoke, or even tie their shoes.

From the outset, the documentary's production reflects the influence of its creators. While this may seem insignificant in the context of camera placement for routine activities, it underscores that the filmmaker made deliberate choices. The camera could have been positioned closer, elevated, or behind the crowd in the factory. In this context, that choice was crucial because the synchronized movement of the workers during the Industrial Revolution represented a significant symbolic image.

A More Constructive Narrative

Let's face it, though: films like these may be historically quaint, but we have come to expect compelling themes from modern filmmakers. These locked-down slices of life may show how people lived, but today's audiences are used to commentary—either direct or implied by their content creators.

Over time, documentaries have become longer and more informative, incorporating stylistic elements that make them popular in theaters, on television, and YouTube. In addition to fostering empathy, documentaries raise awareness of critical social issues. This style of filmmaking gives viewers access to foreign subjects and exotic environments that would otherwise remain off-limits.

Scenics

Travelogue films were very popular in the early 20th century. Distributors often referred to them as "Scenics." Scenics ranked among the most popular film types during that period. They were essentially proto-documentaries, typically silent, capturing exotic locales, daily life in distant places, or natural wonders for cinema audiences who might never travel beyond their hometown.

The French companies Pathé and Gaumont produced short travelogues, such as “Panorama de la Meuse” (1910) and “Scenes of India” (1911). A handful of hand-tinted titles added a promotable aspect, including “A Trip to the Alps” (1910) and “Scenes from Venice” (Pathécolor). Along with Pathé News, Fox Movietone featured newsreels alongside brief travel segments that showcased markets, ceremonies, and landscapes.

Burton Holmes was one of the most renowned travel lecturers and filmmakers of his time. He coined the term “travelogue.” By the 1910s, he was producing filmed travel talks that were presented in vaudeville houses and movie theaters, showcasing locations such as Egypt, Japan, and the Grand Canyon. Holmes’s “In the Land of the Head Hunters” (1914) is a dramatized portrayal of the Kwakwaka’wakw people in British Columbia. This film combines documentary-style scenes with a fictional narrative, establishing it as an important early work that goes beyond the notion of the scenic.

More experiments with color during this decade include Kinemacolor’s “With Our King and Queen Through India” (1912) and Prizma Color’s “Everywhere With Prizma” (1919), along with the feature-length “Bali the Unknown” (1921), which used travelogues to promote the new color processes. In contrast, Technicolor focused mainly on securing Hollywood studios' adoption of its process for fictional feature films.

Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\):The Prizma Color Camera from an article in Photoplay 1922, Public Domain

South (1919)

A prime example of an actuality feature film is Frank Hurley's “South” (1919), which depicts the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition bound for Antarctica. This 1914 film follows Ernest Shackleton’s ship “Endurance.” It features dramatic scenes of the ship trapped in advancing Arctic ice, which ultimately crushes the vessel. After months on the ice, Shackleton leads the crew and passengers through a grueling 800 miles to a whaling station, ultimately abandoning the ship and sailing.

Following World War I, audiences couldn't wait to dive into stories filled with heroism, survival, and the incredible strength of the human spirit. The remarkable tale of Shackleton’s expedition had already captured public attention through the press, and many viewers were already familiar with the gripping saga of survival before they even saw the film.

Audiences were captivated by the incredibly positive and emotionally charged real-life footage of the frozen Antarctic. The survival story, along with images of men, dogs, and the ship trapped in ice, resonated deeply with a postwar public familiar with hardship and sacrifice. There was a sense of national pride and admiration for Shackleton and his crew as symbols of British fortitude and courage.

The emotional impact of watching Hurley’s footage of the crushed Endurance and the stranded men was moving for viewers. Screenings were often accompanied by live musical scores and sometimes even lectures by expedition members, transforming them into multi-sensory, community-centered events. Audiences reacted with audible gasps and applause during key moments, particularly when Shackleton’s daring open-boat journey to South Georgia was depicted.

The film was seen not only as entertainment but also as a civic and educational experience, reinforcing ideals of perseverance and leadership. Although later overshadowed by narrative adventure films, “South” is now regarded as a pioneering work in expedition and documentary filmmaking.

Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\): Graphic created by Steve Shlisky, 2025

"Nanook of the North" (1922)

As camera equipment evolved and filmmaking became more portable, studios and explorers produced increasingly elaborate travelogues. American filmmaker Robert Flaherty made "Nanook of the North" (1922), a film about the daily life of Canada’s Inuit people. Flaherty aimed to show how these individuals survived in their harsh environments, often recreating scenes such as building an igloo and hunting walrus. Excitement surrounding this feature-length film focused on its groundbreaking, authentic portrayal of Inuit life. In retrospect, the film has sparked serious debate regarding ethics.

First, "Nanook of the North" was not the man’s real name (he was Allakariallak), and the women portrayed as his wives were not his actual wives. Flaherty cast them for narrative convenience. Flaherty insisted that the Inuit use traditional hunting methods (spears, harpoons) instead of the firearms they were actually using at the time. The film’s intent was to depict a simplistic, exotic image of a people unchanged by modern society.

This does not discount the historical value of “Nanook of the North”. It was one of the first films to combine nonfiction material with narrative storytelling, setting a template for future documentaries. Its blending of staged sequences with factual footage opened the door to docudrama and hybrid documentary-fiction storytelling, as seen in the later projects of filmmakers like Werner Herzog and Robert J. Flaherty himself.

And perhaps most importantly for today's documentary filmmakers, this work plays a crucial role in shaping and evolving discussions within the genre, influencing how future creators approach consent, representation, authenticity, and staging. "Nanook of the North" stands as both a groundbreaking achievement and a valuable lesson. The staged scenes and artistic choices raise important ethical questions that continue to resonate in modern documentary filmmaking, while its influence on form, technique, and genre development remains undeniable.

This mix of travelogue and recreated daily life continues through the Scenic period:

• “Chang: A Drama of the Wilderness” (1927)
  By Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack (who later made King Kong), this film depicts a family living in the jungles of northern Siam (now Thailand), blending documentary footage with dramatized survival stories.
• “Grass: A Nation’s Battle for Life” (1925) Another Cooper & Schoedsack adventure, this film documents the seasonal migration of the Bakhtiari tribe in Persia (modern-day Iran) — visually stunning, showcasing river crossings and snowy mountain ascents.
• “Traveltalks” (late 1920s beginnings)
  James A. FitzPatrick’s Traveltalks series officially took off in the 1930s, but he was active earlier, experimenting with scenic shorts in the late '20s.

As films grew longer and audiences increased, going to the movies became a popular form of entertainment. Initially, movies were silent and accompanied by music and sound effects. Synchronized sound movies appeared in the late 1920s, but earlier films featured live musicians in major theaters. Silent films engaged viewers deeply. Early filmmakers used camera movement and varied angles to tell stories. They also experimented with editing, combining multiple shots to show actions or create sequences, which allowed for complex stories. Important works like Robert J. Flaherty’s “Nanook of the North” (1922), Dziga Vertov’s “Man with a Movie Camera” (1929), and Walter Ruttmann’s “Berlin: Symphony of a Great City” (1927) demonstrated how editing shapes stories, sets rhythm, and evokes feelings, laying the groundwork for modern documentary filmmaking.

Thumbnail: Royalty-Free photo from PickPik.